<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[Michele Dantini: The Bibliophile]]></title><description><![CDATA[Ripropongo qui periodicamente in pdf / jpeg etc., solo per gli abbonati, miei testi da tempo irreperibili, scientifici o di commento politico e culturale, che abbiano nel frattempo mantenuto e/o ritrovato attualità; e documenti di ricerca (immagini, testi, etc.) tratti dal mio archivio, con un breve "montaggio" e introduzione ad hoc. ]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/s/the-bibliophile</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CYcX!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd03d487f-93e5-424c-a37b-40fd6aeea08e_432x432.png</url><title>Michele Dantini: The Bibliophile</title><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/s/the-bibliophile</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Sat, 20 Jun 2026 08:38:46 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Michele Dantini]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[it]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[micheledantini@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[micheledantini@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[micheledantini@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[micheledantini@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[Arte e liturgia al tempo del Concilio di Trento / 🇮🇹 🇬🇧]]></title><description><![CDATA[Apparso in due volumi tra 1957 e 1959, ristampato dal Mulino, "Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti" di Paolo Prodi propone un dialogo serrato tra storia politico-religiosa e storia dell'arte]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/early-modern-e-storia-dellarte-paolo</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/early-modern-e-storia-dellarte-paolo</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 22 May 2026 05:27:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4l7P!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf9e66b6-f61a-4eda-bd61-97c756274cd2_2948x4253.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; <em>English Version below</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Apparso in due volumi a date diverse, 1957 e 1959, da poco ristampato dal Mulino nell&#8217;ambito di un&#8217;opera omnia non dichiarata, <em>Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti</em>, <em>1522-1597</em> di Paolo Prodi &#232;, a mio avviso, uno tra i libri fondamentali del &#8220;dopoguerra allargato&#8221;, insieme con <em>In partibus infidelium</em> di Luisa Mangoni (1989) e <em>L&#8217;eretico che salv&#242; la Chiesa</em> di Massimo Firpo e Germano Maifreda (sviante per&#242; nel titolo &#8220;cantimoriano&#8221;, 2019). E&#8217; tale perch&#233;, se anche si presenta come biografia di un uomo, &#232; per&#242;, nelle ambizioni, &#8220;biografia di una nazione&#8221; colta al trapasso di un&#8217;epoca, vale a dire, al passaggio dal cattolicesimo tridentino al cattolicesimo post-conciliare. Tale biografia &#232; poi condotta secondo criteri di <em>longue dur&#233;e</em> - quasi un saggio di antropologia culturale.</p><p>Cosa resta, se qualcosa, del progetto di fondazione di una <em>respublica christiana</em> che anima la prima generazione tridentina - i <strong>Carlo Borromeo</strong>, i Morone, i Paleotti appunto? -. Questa &#232; la domanda che motiva Prodi, persuaso che i modelli storiografici correnti, per cui tutto &#232; nero o tutto &#232; bianco nella Riforma Cattolica o Controriforma, falliscano entrambi. E che perci&#242;, prima di lasciarsi decisamente alle spalle tutto questo, sia opportuno discernere, misurare, bilanciare.</p><p>Paleotti, dunque: non come individuo &#8220;cosmico-storico&#8221;, perch&#233; anzi il cardinale bolognese appare sovente, nel corso della trattazione, come un individuo isolato, sia pure nobilmente isolato; n&#233; come arido precettore controriformistico, in ambiti quali l&#8217;arte, la liturgia, la pastorale. Ci appare invece come umanista cristiano, impegnato su piani civili non meno che religiosi, umile ma capace di improvvise intransigenze, che lo portano a scontrarsi con legati pontifici, governatori e Papi; cultore di scienze naturali, esegesi biblica e arti figurative.</p><p>Amico di umanisti e scienziati come Carlo Sigonio e <strong>Ulisse Aldovrandi</strong>, legato da fervidi rapporti di stima e ammirazione a Giovanni Gerolamo Morone e Carlo Borromeo, mentori cui volgersi in circostanze difficili, vicino a artisti come Prospero Fontana e <strong>Ludovico Carracci</strong>, al cui &#8220;naturalismo&#8221;, lungi dall&#8217;opporsi o obiettare, Paleotti contribuisce, l&#8217;autore del <em>Discorso intorno alle immagini sacre e profane</em>, edito nel 1582 in volgare proprio a fine di &#8220;conversazione&#8221; con artisti e appassionati, altrimenti esclusi dall&#8217;uso del latino, si rivela tra le figure pi&#249; colte e motivate della Chiesa all&#8217;indomani del Concilio, cui partecipa prestando senza riserve la propria opera.</p><p>Si tratta al tempo, per coloro che ho appena nominato e non solo, di propagare lo slancio evangelico per ogni dove, creando un uomo e una societ&#224; &#8220;nuove&#8221;. A questo slancio, tuttavia, circostanze le pi&#249; diverse, materiali e immateriali, recano intralci insormontabili: le resistenze della Curia romana, ad esempio, e del &#8220;partito&#8221; dei conservatori intrecciate alle resistenze delle elite locali interessate a mantenere il controllo sugli incarichi ecclesiastici e sulle rendite che ne derivano; le preoccupazioni apologetiche e controversistiche; il timore dell&#8217;eresia; la corruzione e il nepotismo; la prevalenza del &#8220;politico&#8221; sullo &#8220;spirituale&#8221;; infine la mancanza di risorse, anche economiche, cui sono destinati a soccombere proprio quei vescovi che, pur fedeli alla Chiesa cattolica, vorrebbero dare impulso prioritariamente pastorale alla Riforma e orientarla nel senso della &#8220;cura di anime&#8221; - non dell&#8217;assolutismo pontificio n&#233; del primato delle magistrature ecclesiastiche. Ci&#242; che gli &#8220;spirituali&#8221; scoprono loro malgrado, con sgomento, &#232; che lo Stato pontificio non evolve, al tempo, in modo diverso da un qualsiasi Stato &#8220;laico&#8221;, sia esso il Regno di Francia o di Spagna o l&#8217;Impero: ai processi di centralizzazione corrisponde la creazione di vaste burocrazie.</p><p>Questa dell&#8217;equivalenza <em>politica</em> tra Stato pontificio e monarchie nazionali nel Nord Europa e in Spagna &#232; una tesi maggiore del <em>Cardinale Gabriele Galeotti</em>, e comporta rilevanti revisioni storiografiche<em>. </em>Sul finire del Cinquecento Riforma e Controriforma, Chiesa &#8220;spirituale&#8221; e Chiesa disciplinare si fronteggiano, nella penisola e altrove, in modo a tal punto aspro che ben poco, dello slancio di cui si &#232; scritto sopra, sopravvive alla morte di quanti avevano preso parte al Concilio - la &#8220;prima generazione&#8221; -. Tuttavia non ha senso, per Prodi, parlare di un&#8217;origine protestante del mondo moderno.</p><p>In breve: la Controriforma (vale a dire la Chiesa disciplinare, o meglio il centralismo pontificio accompagnato dall&#8217;azione repressiva delle magistrature ecclesiastiche e dal ritardo nell&#8217;applicazione dei decreti tridentini) soffoca la Riforma cattolica (la Chiesa mobilitata a fini di &#8220;cura delle anime&#8221;). La Curia romana, trasformata in vero e proprio Stato attraverso la creazione dei dicasteri e la cooptazione di cardinali-ministri al vertice, cos&#236; da depotenziare, per contro, il Collegio, teme che un&#8217;eventuale opera di bonifica del Papa, volta a allontanare i pastori negligenti e sostituirli con pastori pi&#249; vocati, venga a costituire precedente per i monarchi del Nord Europa e della Spagna; e si muove prioritariamente per impedire che dall&#8217;alveo &#8220;spirituale&#8221; nascano e si diffondano nuove eresie (questa del conflitto interno alla Chiesa cattolica di Riforma e Controriforma, con la progressiva affermazione della Controriforma, &#232; la seconda tesi del volume di cui tratto). </p><p><em>Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti</em> non &#232; importante solo sotto profili storico-politici e storico-religiosi. Lo &#232; altrettanto se considerato da prospettive storico-artistiche. Prodi polemizza contro quanti, <strong>Longhi</strong> e la scuola di Longhi in primis, si sono fatti storici dell&#8217;arte dell&#8217;&#8221;epoca confessionale&#8221; senza possedere le necessarie cognizioni politico-ecclesiastiche, liturgiche e teologiche; n&#233; nasconde sconcerto o persino indignazione per i luoghi comuni spesso triviali cui si &#232; ricorsi. Ha facile gioco nel mostrare la fallacia della contrapposizione (longhiana) tra Controriforma e &#8220;naturalismo&#8221; (carraccesco); e a mostrare anzi che questo (il &#8220;naturalismo&#8221;, appunto) deriva da quella, se correttamente intesa (come Riforma cattolica, non pi&#249; Controriforma) nei suoi motivi &#8220;sperimentali&#8221; di arte e cultura.</p><p>Spicca qui, nel contesto di una breve rievocazione dei rapporti intercorsi tra Paleotti e Ludovico Carracci, l&#8217;elogio di <strong>Arcangeli</strong>, allievo di Longhi, s&#236;, ma la cui consuetudine con Prodi ha senz&#8217;altro nutrito queste pagine di severa polemica anti-longhiana. Sar&#224; bene diffidare dall&#8217;aneddoto: il senso pi&#249; importante del rimando a Arcangeli, qui, non &#232; certo il dispetto per l&#8217;&#8221;ignoranza&#8221; di Longhi, bens&#236; il rammarico che l&#8217;&#8221;umanit&#224; cos&#236; vera&#8221; apparsa &#8220;in sogno&#8221; a Ludovico non sia divenuta <em>tout court</em> storica e effettiva. &#8220;E&#8217; in lui [Ludovico]&#8221;, cos&#236; Arcangeli, citato da Prodi, &#8220;una umanit&#224; cos&#236; vera, da farci sognare che la sua religione avesse potuto essere per secoli, come non fu, il sostegno della nostra vita italiana: questa piet&#224;, questa sobriet&#224; di costume, questa dolce, grave modestia&#8221; che sia Prodi sia Arcangeli accusano Roma di avere soffocato (la contrapposizione tra Roma e Bologna &#232; alle pp. 832-833 dell&#8217;edizione il Mulino. Contrapposizione che porta con s&#233; una seconda contrapposizione, non poco &#8220;ideologica&#8221;, tra Ludovico e Annibale Carracci). Il <strong>Pasolini</strong> del <em>Vangelo secondo Matteo</em> non &#232; lontano: e con lui il &#8220;sogno&#8221; di un&#8217;intesa tra due grandi culture politiche della modernit&#224;: il socialismo &#8220;liberale&#8221; di matrice giellista e il cristianesimo.</p><p>Al momento di dare avvio alla stesura della biografia di Paleotti, per Prodi, si &#232; chiusa un&#8217;epoca e se ne &#232; aperta una nuova. <strong>Dossetti</strong>, cui Prodi &#232; vicino, ha corso per l&#8217;elezione a sindaco di Bologna, non per convinzione propria ma per la richiesta che gli &#232; giunta dall&#8217;allora arcivescovo. Ha perso, e si &#232; consacrato a un&#8217;esistenza anacoretica, giudicando impossibile la relazione tra &#8220;politico&#8221; e spirituale, tra Cristo e Cesare. Ebbene, Prodi oppone, nel <em>Cardinale</em>, a questo Dossetti &#8220;mistico&#8221; e &#8220;impolitico&#8221; la combattivit&#224; di Paleotti. Sviluppa una sorta di anamnesi della Riforma cattolica, coartata e sconfitta dalla Controriforma, per preservare ci&#242; che ancora sia vivo della stagione iniziale, dello slancio tridentino originario; e riportarlo all&#8217;attenzione comune.</p><p>Al di l&#224; dell&#8217;erudizione che dispiega, e che ne garantisce la tenuta scientifica, <em>Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti</em> ha motivazioni attuali che premono appena al di sotto della veste storiografica, &#232; una grande &#8220;officina&#8221; ideologica (civile e ecclesiastica insieme) e, se &#232; lecito dirlo, anche un romanzo dell&#8217;Italia che cambia, tra Ancient R&#233;gime e boom economico. &#8220;Nel continuo intreccio di motivi riformatori e motivi controriformistici che caratterizza il mondo cattolico del Cinquecento, vi &#232; indubbiamente, nell&#8217;ultima parte del secolo - almeno per quanto riguarda l&#8217;Italia - un prevalere graduale della Controriforma, mentre si esaurisce la spinta interna riformatrice&#8221;: Prodi sembra parlare qui di un&#8217;impasse &#232; anche della Democrazia cristiana a met&#224; del sesto decennio.</p><p>Le arti figurative non incrociano casualmente la trattazione, nel <em>Cardinale Gabriele Paleotti</em>, al contrario. Costituiscono un&#8217;articolazione ineludibile del progetto paleottiano di Riforma, certo. Al tempo stesso rinviano a aspettative e discussioni <em>contemporanee</em> che caratterizzano una particolare congiuntura artistico-culturale, in Italia, a cavallo tra Cinquanta e Sessanta: entro tale congiuntura, che Prodi abita purtroppo per poco, e quasi per interposta persona, considerata la sua vicinanza a Arcangeli, sembra ancora possibile, o desiderabile, costruire linee di continuit&#224; tra passato e futuro, prospettare compiti e svolgere &#8220;ragionamenti&#8221; anche nei territori dell&#8217;immaginazione.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Grazie per aver letto <em>The Bibliophile</em>, la sezione del blog dedicata alla riconsiderazione di classici, anteprime, reprints e <em>rariora</em>. 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; Published in two distinct volumes in 1957 and 1959, and recently reissued by Il Mulino as part of an unstated <em>opera omnia</em>, Paolo Prodi&#8217;s<em> Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti, 1522&#8211;1597</em> stands, to my mind, as one of the foundational texts of the &#8220;extended postwar era.&#8221; It belongs on the same shelf as Luisa Mangoni&#8217;s In partibus infidelium (1989) and Massimo Firpo and Germano Maifreda&#8217;s L&#8217;eretico che salv&#242; la Chiesa (2019)&#8212;the latter burdened by a somewhat misleading title. Prodi&#8217;s work achieves this stature because, while ostensibly the biography of a single man, it aspires to be the &#8220;biography of a nation&#8221; caught at a historical watershed: namely, the transition from Tridentine Catholicism to the post-Conciliar era. This biographical narrative is conducted along the lines of the longue dur&#233;e&#8212;unfolding almost as an essay in cultural anthropology.</p><p>What remains, if anything, of the grand project to found a respublica christiana that animated the first Tridentine generation&#8212;the likes of Carlo Borromeo, Filippo Neri, and Paleotti himself? This is the animating question behind Prodi&#8217;s inquiry. He writes from a conviction that current historiographical models, which reduce the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation to a binary of absolute black or white, are mutually bankrupt. Consequently, before definitively relegating this entire epoch to the past, it behooves us to discern, to measure, and to weigh.</p><p>Thus, we encounter Paleotti: not as some &#8220;world-historical&#8221; figure in the Hegelian sense&#8212;indeed, throughout the narrative, the Bolognese cardinal frequently appears as an isolated, if nobly isolated, individual&#8212;nor as a dry, Counter-Reformation pedant dictating rules on art, liturgy, and pastoral care. Instead, he emerges as a Christian humanist engaged as much on the civic stage as on the religious one; a man of humility who was nevertheless capable of sudden, unyielding intransigence, leading him into sharp collisions with papal legates, governors, and Popes. He was a devotee of the natural sciences, biblical exegesis, and the figurative arts.</p><p>A friend to humanists and scientists such as Carlo Sigonio and Ulisse Aldovrandi; bound by ties of fervent esteem and admiration to Giovanni Gerolamo Morone and Carlo Borromeo&#8212;mentors to whom he turned in times of duress; close to artists like Prospero Fontana, Bartolomeo Cesi, and Ludovico Carracci, whose &#8220;naturalism&#8221; Paleotti far from opposed but actively nurtured&#8212;the author of the Discorso intorno alle immagini sacre e profane (published in the vernacular in 1582 precisely to foster a &#8220;conversation&#8221; with artists and enthusiasts otherwise locked out by Latin) reveals himself as one of the most cultured and driven figures of the post-Conciliar Church, an institution to which he unreservedly dedicated his life&#8217;s work.</p><p><em>The Thwarted Ideal and the Roman Shadow</em></p><p>At the time, the mission for those just mentioned, and many others, was to propagate an evangelical impulse far and wide, forging both a &#8220;new&#8221; man and a &#8220;new&#8221; society. Yet this momentum was blocked by insurmountable obstacles of every stripe, both material and immaterial: the resistance of the Roman Curia and the conservative faction intertwined with the pushback of local elites; apologetic and controversialist anxieties; the obsessive fear of heresy; corruption and nepotism; the triumph of the &#8220;political&#8221; over the &#8220;spiritual&#8221;; and, finally, a dearth of economic resources. It was a scarcity destined to crush precisely those bishops who most genuinely sought to embody the reform. The project of the Catholic Reformation remained, in Prodi&#8217;s phrase, &#8220;unfinished&#8221;&#8212;left open for future completion. By the close of the sixteenth century, Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the pastoral Church and the disciplinary Church, confronted each other so bitterly, both on the Italian peninsula and elsewhere, that precious little of that initial evangelical zeal survived the deaths of the first-generation bishops and cardinals who had been the protagonists of the Council.</p><p>Prodi&#8217;s book is not merely a landmark for political and religious historians; it is equally vital for historians of art. Prodi polemicizes against those&#8212;Roberto Longhi and his school, first and foremost&#8212;who set themselves up as art historians of the &#8220;confessional age&#8221; without possessing the requisite political-ecclesiastical, liturgical, and theological knowledge. Nor does he conceal his bewilderment, even indignation, at the often trivial clich&#233;s to which they resorted. He has an easy time exposing the fallacy of Longhi&#8217;s stark opposition between the Counter-Reformation and Carracciesque &#8220;naturalism.&#8221; On the contrary, Prodi demonstrates that this very naturalism stemmed from the Counter-Reformation, provided the latter is correctly understood&#8212;as a Catholic Reformation rather than mere Counter-Reformation&#8212;in its &#8220;experimental&#8221; artistic and cultural impulses.</p><p>&#8220;There is in Ludovico an humanity so true as to make us dream that his religion might have been for centuries&#8212;as it was not&#8212;the backbone of our Italian life...&#8221;</p><p>Here, within a brief evocation of the relationship between Paleotti and Ludovico Carracci, the praise of Francesco Arcangeli stands out. Arcangeli was, to be sure, a pupil of Longhi, but his close familiarity with Prodi undoubtedly nourished these pages of severe anti-Longhian polemic. We should beware of viewing this as mere academic gossip: the deeper significance of the reference to Arcangeli is not a petty spite toward Longhi&#8217;s &#8220;ignorance,&#8221; but rather a profound regret that the &#8220;humanity so true&#8221; that appeared &#8220;in a dream&#8221; to Ludovico never became fully historical or realized. &#8220;There is in him [Ludovico],&#8221; wrote Arcangeli, as quoted by Prodi, &#8220;an humanity so true as to make us dream that his religion might have been for centuries&#8212;as it was not&#8212;the backbone of our Italian life: this piety, this sobriety of manners, this sweet, grave modesty.&#8221; It is an ethos that both Prodi and Arcangeli accuse Rome of suffocating. (This tension between Rome and Bologna is laid out on pages 832&#8211;833 of the Il Mulino edition&#8212;a friction that carries with it a second, highly ideological opposition between Ludovico and Annibale Carracci). The Pier Paolo Pasolini of The Gospel According to St. Matthew is not far off here, and with him the &#8220;dream&#8221; of an alliance between two grand political cultures of modernity: the &#8220;liberal&#8221; socialism of the Giustizia e Libert&#224; tradition and Christianity.</p><p><em>History as an Anamnesis of the Present</em></p><p>When Prodi set about writing his biography of Paleotti, an era had closed and a new one had begun. Giuseppe Dossetti, to whom Prodi was close, had run for mayor of Bologna&#8212;not out of personal conviction, but at the behest of the archbishop. He lost, and subsequently retreated into an anchoritic existence, deeming any reconciliation between the &#8220;political&#8221; and the spiritual, between Christ and Caesar, to be impossible. To this &#8220;mystical&#8221; and &#8220;apolitical&#8221; Dossetti, Prodi opposes the combativeness of Paleotti. He develops a sort of anamnesis of the Catholic Reformation&#8212;coerced and defeated by the Counter-Reformation&#8212;in order to preserve whatever might still be alive of that initial season, of that original Tridentine impetus, and to bring it back into the public consciousness.</p><p>Beyond the sheer erudition it deploys, which guarantees its scholarly rigor, Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti is driven by contemporary urgencies that throb just beneath its historiographical surface. It is a formidable ideological workshop&#8212;at once civic and ecclesiastical&#8212;and, if one may say so, a novel of a changing Italy caught between the Ancien R&#233;gime and the postwar economic boom. &#8220;In the continuous weaving together of reformist and Counter-Reformation motifs that characterizes the Catholic world of the sixteenth century, there is undoubtedly, in the latter part of the century&#8212;at least as far as Italy is concerned&#8212;a gradual prevailing of the Counter-Reformation, while the internal reformist drive exhausts itself.&#8221; Here, Prodi seems to be speaking directly to the impasse facing Christian Democracy in the mid-1950s.</p><p>The figurative arts do not intersect the narrative of Il cardinale Gabriele Paleotti by mere happenstance; on the contrary, they constitute an inescapable articulation of Paleotti&#8217;s reformist design. At the same time, they reflect the contemporary expectations and debates that characterized a specific artistic and cultural conjuncture in Italy at the turn of the 1960s. Within this conjuncture&#8212;which Prodi inhabited all too briefly, and almost by proxy through his closeness to Arcangeli&#8212;it still seemed possible, even desirable, to forge lines of continuity between past and future, to envision new duties, and to conduct &#8220;reasoned arguments&#8221; even within the territories of the imagination.</p><div><hr></div><p>Thank you for reading <em>The Bibliophile</em>, our dedicated space for the critical reappraisal of classics, previews, reprints, and rariora. 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Un profilo “longue durée” dell’arte in Italia / 🇮🇹 🇬🇧]]></title><description><![CDATA[Tratto di lungo periodo dell'arte italiana &#232; la vicinanza tra dimensioni estetica e etico-politica, intesa in senso ampio. Qui un breve profilo per comprendere meglio l'arte pi&#249; recente: sino a oggi]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/storia-dellarte-e-storia-civile</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/storia-dellarte-e-storia-civile</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 02 May 2026 07:12:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P_WU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b1cf5c3-3b9e-4682-b1d3-fc9e6f9c3189_1784x2880.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>&#127468;&#127463; English Version below</em></p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Nei decenni pi&#249; vicini a noi la storia dell&#8217;arte del Novecento &#232; diventata sempre pi&#249; diversa da una semplice &#8220;storia delle avanguardie&#8221;. Questa o quella &#8220;avanguardia&#8221; si &#232; rivelata nient&#8217;altro che un momento di una pi&#249; ampia costellazione, si &#232; smesso di credere a un corso lineare e evolutivo della &#8220;storia dell&#8217;arte&#8221;, il &#8220;prima&#8221; e il &#8220;poi&#8221; (o Antico e Moderno) si sono intrecciati, rendendo prima dubbia, poi del tutto inservibile la nozione di <em>tabula rasa</em>. Si &#232; provato che i movimenti riconosciuti come di avanguardia, sia nell&#8217;anteguerra, che nel periodo dell&#8217;<em>entre-deux-guerres</em>, che, ancora, nei decenni della Guerra Fredda, hanno non solo coltivato un loro &#8220;museo&#8221;, vale a dire precise predilezioni storico-artistiche, spesso affiancando, sotto profili di storia del gusto, conoscitori e studiosi impegnati nella promozione di epoche o civilt&#224; artistiche considerate sino a quel momento &#8220;minori&#8221;; ma si sono resi protagonisti in prima persona di rivalutazioni e &#8220;scoperte&#8221;, ad esempio l&#8217;arte africana e oceanica al tempo delle avanguardie storiche, l&#8217;arte precolombiana e Inuit tra le due guerre, l&#8217;arte dei nativi americani a cavallo tra Quaranta e Cinquanta. Se sino a un recente passato la storia dell&#8217;arte contemporanea sembrava cos&#236; una linea retta, il punto di partenza e il punto di arrivo chiaramente stabiliti sulla carta, oggi tendiamo a leggere il Novecento come un arcipelago: non esiste un unico criterio di valutazione (l&#8217;&#8221;astratto&#8221; anzich&#233; il figurativo, poniamo), vince invece una grande pluralit&#224; di strategie visuali che corrispondono a differenti istanze e agende di ricerca congiunturali.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Siamo cos&#236; passati, potremmo dire in sintesi, da una narrazione &#8220;monocentrica&#8221;, che assegnava invariabilmente a Parigi (per la prima met&#224; del secolo) o a New York (per il secondo dopoguerra) il ruolo di capitale indiscussa dell&#8217;arte contemporanea (e ai movimenti artistici che incontravano il favore delle elite intellettuali delle due metropoli il rango di avanguardie planetarie), a narrazioni &#8220;policentriche&#8221;, che prevedono una maggiore diversit&#224; delle poste in gioco e varianti &#8220;regionali&#8221; da considerare di volta in volta nella loro specificit&#224;. Scrivere di storia dell&#8217;arte contemporanea significa quindi oggi &#8220;scrivere di luoghi&#8221;, quasi sul modello dell&#8217;etnografia - citt&#224;, cerchie, istituzioni culturali e civili, genealogie, tradizioni figurative. Significa anche rigettare una &#8220;storia dello stile&#8221; concepita per cos&#236; dire &#8220;a maglie larghe&#8221;, decennio per decennio, di carattere potenzialmente &#8220;universalista&#8221;, a favore di una ricostruzione &#8220;a maglie strette&#8221; di singoli contesti storicamente situati, nel cui ambito &#8220;arte&#8221;, &#8220;stile&#8221;, &#8220;estetica&#8221; si intreccino in modi vincolanti e minuti al discorso politico, religioso etc. Il paesaggio artistico e culturale che cos&#236; si offre agli storici, sempre con riferimento all&#8217;arte del xx secolo, &#232; inevitabilmente pi&#249; franto e problematico: e, cosa che pi&#249; conta, le usuali demarcazioni tra Centro e Periferia appaiono malcerte e sempre di nuovo revocabili.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Storia </em>dell&#8217;<em>arte e storia </em>nell&#8217;<em>arte. Il contributo degli storici al rinnovamento di una disciplina</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Al rinnovamento di agende e metodi di ricerca hanno contribuito in Italia, in misura decisiva, studiosi che non sono storici dell&#8217;arte <em>tout court</em>, ma storici politici e della cultura, cui in genere non si guarda come a autori di contributi di grande rilevanza per ci&#242; che riguarda le arti figurative. Tuttavia &#232; oggi fuori discussione che Renzo De Felice e Emilio Gentile, Francesco Perfetti e Niccol&#242; Zapponi, in misura minore anche Luisa Mangoni, per fare solo alcuni nomi, hanno considerevolmente ampliato la ricognizione dei contesti entro cui operano artisti e movimenti, raccordando tra loro, pi&#249; che non si facesse in passato, storia politica e storia dell&#8217;arte<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>. Se De Felice ha avviato un intero ambito di ricerca sulle continuit&#224; sociali e culturali tra le due met&#224; del secolo, continuit&#224; effettivamente riscontrabili malgrado drammatiche cesure politiche e istituzionali, e, nel trattare di &#171;liturgia politica&#187; o di &#171;nazionalizzazione delle masse&#187;, ha riconosciuto l&#8217;importanza dello studio delle opere d&#8217;arte dal punto di vista di una storia dei totalitarismi, Gentile e Perfetti, allievi entrambi di De Felice, si sono soffermati sul futurismo illuminandone sia versanti meno conosciuti e considerati &#8220;minori&#8221;, sia le contiguit&#224; con il fascismo colto nei suoi pi&#249; diversi aspetti. Si deve invece a Zapponi, pure lui allievo di De Felice, nel saggio intitolato <em>I Miti e le ideologie</em> (1981), un primo tentativo di studiare il passaggio dal fascismo a Repubblica, in particolare gli anni che vanno dal 1943 al 1948. Zapponi attinge qui copiosamente all&#8217;interpretazione delle opere d&#8217;arte. Consegue cos&#236; un duplice vantaggio: amplia la base documentaria delle proprie ricerche avvalendosi di fonti anche figurative e si sgancia dalla sola memorialistica dei protagonisti del &#171;lungo viaggio&#187;, cos&#236; spesso risultata inattendibile<a href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">E&#8217; questo d&#8217;altra parte, del crescente interesse degli storici per le opere d&#8217;arte intese come documenti, una circostanza che vale la pena segnalare: tale interesse si manifesta non solo nello studio del Novecento, ma anche in ricerche che hanno per oggetto epoche pi&#249; antiche, come il Cinque e il Seicento. Accenner&#242; in seguito a Paolo Prodi e alle sue ricerche, per tanti versi cos&#236; anticipatrici, sul cardinale Gabriele Paleotti e l&#8217;estetica della Controriforma. Consideriamo adesso, a mo&#8217; di esempio, gli studi di Massimo Firpo sul valdesianesimo e lo spiritualismo religioso nell&#8217;Italia del Cinquecento, cos&#236; ricchi di insegnamenti storico-artistici - relativi, poniamo, a Michelangelo anzich&#233; a Lotto e Pontormo -; agli studi di Carlo Ginzburg su Piero della Francesca, di Ottavia Niccoli e Adriano Prosperi ancora sul Cinquecento artistico e religioso insieme<a href="#_ftn3">[3]</a>; o ancora alle tante ricerche che vedono collaborare assieme storici della Chiesa, storici dell&#8217;arte e dell&#8217;archeologia, dedicate in questi ultimi tre decenni a interpreti eminenti della Riforma cattolica (o Controriforma), come Cesare Baronio, Carlo e Federico Borromeo, e altri<a href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>. </p><p style="text-align: justify;">In un&#8217;occasione Firpo precisa che lo interessa non la storia dell&#8217;arte intesa formalisticamente come <em>connoisseurship</em>, bens&#236; la &#171;storia <em>nell&#8217;</em>arte&#187;: appunto lo studio delle opere d&#8217;arte intese come documenti di una vicenda pi&#249; ampia e generale, che si muove nel solco di rivolgimenti profondi, tali da trascendere la semplice storia del &#8220;gusto&#8221; e fuggire dall&#8217;ambito ristretto degli studi sui collezionisti e gli eruditi. E&#8217; evidente che qui ci imbattiamo in un suggerimento di metodo utile anche al di l&#224; del periodo di immediata competenza di Firpo - il Cinquecento italiano, appunto -: suggerimento che ha senso raccogliere e provarsi a rendere fecondo anche per lo studio del Novecento. La storia dell&#8217;arte - o la storia <em>nell&#8217;</em>arte, se si preferisce - ha obiettivi e motivazioni che vanno al di l&#224; dei cardini disciplinari oggi indiscussi in ambito universitario, vale a dire la conservazione e la didattica: di fatto &#232; storia <em>tout court</em>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>&#171;Impurit&#224;&#187;: un privilegio?</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Per i tratti di singolarit&#224; e originalit&#224; che la caratterizzano, l&#8217;arte italiana del Novecento ha tutto da guadagnare dalla mutazione di paradigma appena delineata. A lungo misurata sul metro delle &#8220;avanguardie&#8221; parigine o newyorkesi, astratte o &#8220;concettuali&#8221;, essa rivela invece una costante inclinazione al &#8220;numinoso&#8221;, al &#8220;soccorrevole&#8221; o al meraviglioso. Tale inclinazione si manifesta non solo quando ci si imbatta in stili esplicitamente figurativi, ad esempio nel periodo tra le due guerre, introdotto, in Italia, dall&#8217;esperienza di <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em>, rivista fondata da Mario Broglio nel 1919, cui collaborano de Chirico, Carr&#224;, Savinio, Emilio Cecchi e altri; ma anche quando tali stili figurativi vengano meno, ad esempio negli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta. Ci si &#232; spesso interrogati, in rapporto all&#8217;Arte povera ad esempio, sul particolare rapporto che artisti come Pascali, o Pistoletto, o Paolini, o Boetti stabiliscono con un mondo di immagini preesistenti, di memorie storico-artistiche e tradizioni<a href="#_ftn5">[5]</a>. Talvolta studiosi non italiani hanno espresso stupore per quell&#8217;&#171;impurit&#224;&#187; che, ai loro occhi, distingue appunto l&#8217;arte italiana degli anni Sessanta e Settanta dal &#8220;concettuale&#8221; nordeuropeo e anglo-americano, cui pure si avvicina, ma che muove da premesse radicalmente diverse<a href="#_ftn6">[6]</a>. Per &#171;impurit&#224;&#187; non dobbiamo intendere qui in nessun modo alcunch&#233; di invalidante: piuttosto una maggiore disponibilit&#224; all&#8217;immagine intesa quasi come &#8220;visitazione&#8221;, imprevedibile deposito di una memoria storico-artistica millenaria; e, per converso, una diffidenza per tutto ci&#242; che, nel discorso critico, possa darsi di troppo rigido e normativo. In altre parole: ritroviamo qui, in pieno Novecento, una contrapposizione che ha accompagnato per secoli la storia del cristianesimo, modellato la liturgia, diviso popoli e Chiese: mi riferisco al contrasto tra iconoduli e iconoclasti, o se si preferisce alla contesa sulle immagini sacre, di cui, non a torto, si &#232; riconosciuta la perdurante attualit&#224; ancora con riferimenti a artisti, opere d&#8217;arte o movimenti tra i pi&#249; recenti<a href="#_ftn7">[7]</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Se ammettiamo il tratto distintivo, e persino unico, del Novecento italiano, ecco allora che sorgono immediatamente alcune domande. Da dove discende tale &#8220;unicit&#224;&#8221;? Quali categorie, storiche, estetiche o altro, la descrivono meglio? Sono queste, in definitiva, le domande cui la storiografia artistica pi&#249; recente ha cercato di dare risposta, lasciando da parte modelli interpretativi astratti o dottrinari, invalsi sin quasi ad oggi soprattutto nello studio del secondo Novecento, e impegnandosi invece nella concreta ricerca di fonti e tradizioni figurative. Lo si &#232; fatto con riferimento a Fontana e ai suoi <em>Tagli</em>, riconoscendone non solo il &#8220;racconto&#8221; implicito, ma la tradizione sottostante; si &#232; cercato di farlo con riferimento a Piero Manzoni e ai suoi <em>Achromes</em>, in precedenza avvicinati sotto l&#8217;esclusivo punto di vista della &#8220;non figurazione&#8221;; lo si &#232; fatto, ancora, con riferimento a Pistoletto, mostrando il contante interesse dell&#8217;artista per le opere di tradizione. Pare superfluo, qui, moltiplicare gli esempi: &#232; sufficiente delineare un nuovo indirizzo di ricerca, pi&#249; attento alle &#8220;continuit&#224;&#8221; e alle &#8220;riscoperte&#8221; e meno disposto a accreditare (e festeggiare) fratture irreparabili. D&#8217;altra parte occorre essere chiari in proposito: nel prestare attenzione a consuetudini per cos&#236; dire &#8220;citazionistiche&#8221; dell&#8217;arte italiana degli anni Cinquanta|Settanta, non si vuole affermare l&#8217;esistenza di attitudini in qualche modo antiquarie, sentimentalmente storicistiche o neo-romantiche; bens&#236; attitudini critiche e sperimentali. &#8220;Citazione&#8221; equivale qui per lo pi&#249; a &#171;verifica&#187;, nel senso in cui Fortini usa il termine nella celebre raccolta di saggi dal titolo <em>&#171;Verifica dei poteri&#187;</em>, datata 1965: equivale dunque a reinventare, a conferire forme nuove a <em>topoi</em> o iconografie trapassate, a &#171;verificare&#8221; appunto la &#8220;praticabilit&#224;&#8221; dell&#8217;Antico (o meglio: delle Origini) e a rigenerare l&#8217;uno e le altre, accompagnandone la riformulazione in un contesto storico-culturale profondamente diverso. Resta infatti, agli occhi di de Chirico o Carr&#224; cos&#236; come di Fontana o Burri, il &#8220;trauma&#8221; della distanza storica, della cesura appunto: che &#232; insieme artistica, politica e sociale<a href="#_ftn8">[8]</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Nel primo dopoguerra ci si interroga sulle ragioni del venir meno, tra Sette e Ottocento, della grande tradizione artistica italiana che va dal Due al Settecento, imperniata su temi illustri e narrazioni di storia e religione - potremmo considerare Giambattista Tiepolo suo ultimo interprete -; nel secondo dopoguerra invece &#232; l&#8217;inserimento dell&#8217;Italia nel contesto atlantico a costituire problema, perch&#233; tale inserimento, successivo alla catastrofe bellica e al tracollo del regime fascista, si compie in condizioni di subalternit&#224; politica e militare e porta con s&#233; il pericolo della scomparsa dell&#8217;arte e della cultura italiana <em>tout court</em>. Come confrontarsi con una tradizione prestigiosa, la propria, se si appartiene a una nazione che si scopre bruscamente periferica? E come ripristinare dialoghi cosmopoliti dopo decenni di isolamento? Questo il punto alla data fatidica del 1945 (o, se si preferisce, del 1943).</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Consideriamo, quasi come <em>locus classicus</em> di una determinata riflessione antopologico-culturale che ha luogo nel secondo dopoguerra nel paese, il breve testo <em>L&#8217;arte e gli italiani</em> di Levi, datato 1955: che dovrebbe essere incluso, e tuttavia non lo &#232;, in una qualsiasi antologia leviana di &#8220;scritti politici&#8221;. &#171;Vi &#232; qualcosa di proprio e unico&#187;, vaticina Levi, qui nelle vesti di morfologo, &#171;che fa s&#236; che l&#8217;Italia, sola o quasi fra le nazioni, si presenti non solo ricchissima di un inesauribile tesoro di opere d&#8217;arte del passato, sempre rinnovato di secolo in secolo fino a oggi, ma tale che questo tesoro d&#8217;arte non diventa mai cosa morta, o <em>museo</em>, ma vive insieme al paese intero, ne fa parte essenziale, serve di modello alla vita quotidiana, e ne &#232; a sua volta modificata; &#232; documento della storia passata, e storia essa stessa&#187;<a href="#_ftn9">[9]</a>. Levi riflette qui su un particolare rapporto che unisce lo spettatore (la comunit&#224; degli spettatori) alle immagini dipinte o scolpite. In Italia, questa la sua tesi, tale rapporto trova una manifestazione elettiva nella &#8220;lunga durata&#8221; che congiunge tra loro tardo Antico, Medioevo, Rinascimento e &#171;et&#224; confessionale&#187;. Levi ricerca qui in altre parole qualcosa come una particolare &#8220;antropologia&#8221; (artistica e religiosa insieme) soggiacente all&#8217;apprezzamento popolare e quotidiano dell&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte. E&#8217; interessante che l&#8217;appassionato omaggio di Levi all&#8217;Italia si concluda con il rifiuto dell&#8217;&#171;astratto estetismo dei professori di oggi&#187;, per cui si deve intendere in primo luogo Venturi e Argan, colpevoli, agli occhi di Levi, di sostenere l&#8217;astrattismo internazionale: al mondo simbolico mediterraneo (o all&#8217;&#8221;antropologia&#8221; di cui si &#232; appena parlato), nell&#8217;opinione dell&#8217;autore del <em>Cristo si &#232; fermato a Eboli</em>, rimane estranea la svalutazione (protestante) del mondo sensibile.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#171;Verifica&#187; (come metodo) e sopravvivenza (come posta in palio): possono essere questi i termini che meglio descrivono l&#8217;officina artistica italiana novecentesca, vale a dire di quel particolare modernismo che prevale in Italia tra primo e secondo Novecento. Misurarsi con la possibile (ma mai certa) sopravvivenza dell&#8217;eredit&#224; culturale - pi&#249; in concreto: di un&#8217;illustre tradizione artistica -; e verificarne le condizioni di attualit&#224; in un mondo segnato dall&#8217;egemonia angloamericana e dunque anche dall&#8217;affermazione di tradizioni artistiche diverse, maturate entro una storia civile, culturale e soprattutto religiosa diversa dalla storia dei paesi cattolici.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Una narrazione calibrata sulla &#171;longue dur&#233;e&#187;. Iconoclastia e iconodulia nel Novecento</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Giungiamo qui all&#8217;innesto della storia dell&#8217;arte contemporanea italiana (e non solo) sul tronco della storiografia religiosa che si occupa dell&#8217;&#171;epoca confessionale&#187;. Pi&#249; in particolare, muovendoci a ritroso alla ricerca di tratti distintivi di una tradizione regionale o macroregionale, quella italiana (o &#8220;latina&#8221;, che dir si voglia), con l&#8217;obiettivo di una storia che non sia mera cronaca, sperimentiamo le conseguenze di lunga durata del conflitto cinque-secentesco sull&#8217;uso delle immagini sacre, che divide la Chiesa cattolica dalle Chiese protestanti. Non &#232; certo questa la sede per ripercorrere la storia dell&#8217;iconoclasmo, n&#233; la vasta pubblicistica che accompagna, per lunga parte del Cinquecento, i diversi episodi di mobilitazione contro le immagini che hanno luogo, con violenza crescente, in Svizzera, Francia, Inghilterra e Paesi Bassi<a href="#_ftn10">[10]</a>. Certo &#232; che proprio la distruzione di quadri, sculture e arredi sacri, e il rogo di intere Chiese, istituisce una distanza tra Europa cattolica e Europa riformata quale mai si era data in precedenza. In modi e con misure diverse - pi&#249; tollerante la Chiesa luterana, pi&#249; intransigenti i seguaci svizzeri di Calvino - le Chiese riformate rifiutano i costumi devozionali invalsi sino a quel momento, negano la venerazione delle immagini (il termine &#171;venerazione&#187;, di senso pi&#249; vicino a &#171;deferenza&#187; e &#171;rispetto&#187;, traduce in italiano il greco <em>proskynesis</em>, con cui la tradizione ecclesiastica, sin dal Secondo Concilio di Nicea, tenutosi nel 787, aveva distinto l&#8217;atteggiamento di culto da tenere riguardo alle immagini sante. L&#8217;&#171;adorazione&#187;, <em>latreia</em>, era invece riservata solo a Dio) e stabiliscono che non si debbano dare rappresentazioni della Madonna, dei Santi o altro n&#233; tantomeno genuflettersi innanzi ad esse, portarle in processione, adornarle con ghirlande di fiori etc. (quanto a Cristo, Calvino ammette che si possano rappresentare il Battesimo e l&#8217;Ultima Cena, ma non altro). Oggi facciamo fatica a comprendere come il dibattitto sulle immagini abbia potuto trascinare gli animi fino alla ferocia. Sta di fatto che proprio la lunga stagione di iconoclasmi cinquecenteschi segna la fine di una tradizione artistica comune alle diverse parti dell&#8217;Europa, e avvia un processo le cui conseguenze sono destinate a rivelarsi estremamente longeve: tanto da riflettersi, ancora, a distanza di secoli, in pieno Novecento.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Paola Barocchi, studiosa di Michelangelo, Vasari e della trattatistica storico-artistica cinquecentesca, da poco scomparsa, ha osservato una volta, in un testo breve quanto prezioso datato 1995, che &#171;&#232; da tempo in atto una rilettura della storiografia artistica della Controriforma che cerca di superare opposizioni e contrapposizioni, valorizzando nella tradizione italiana una continuit&#224; che trova gran campo nella riflessione sul mondo classico&#187;<a href="#_ftn11">[11]</a>. Il termine chiave qui &#232; &#171;continuit&#224;&#187;: che al lettore perspicace, avvertito degli interessi anche novecenteschi di Barocchi<a href="#_ftn12">[12]</a>, suggerir&#224; di estendere al xx secolo, e ovviamente di verificare, una determinata strategia storiografica di &#171;valorizzazione [delle] continuit&#224;&#187;. A chi, in maniera del tutto comprensibile, si affrettasse a obiettare che tra &#171;epoca confessionale&#187; e mondo contemporaneo passa gran tempo, si potrebbe facilmente ribattere, in primo luogo, che i tempi e le &#8220;cronologie&#8221; della storia dell&#8217;arte non sono per niente raffrontabili ai tempi e le cronologie della storia politica, e, in secondo luogo, che proprio la vicenda di <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em>, richiamata poco sopra, introduce a un Novecento modernista e tradizionalista insieme, progettato, in Italia, all&#8217;insegna della rammemorante reinvenzione dell&#8217;arte tra Quattro- e Seicento. D&#8217;altra parte occorre leggere tra le righe della pacata riflessione di Barocchi, per intenderne latitudine e intenzione segretamente &#8220;militante&#8221;. Si tratta cio&#232;, per la storica dell&#8217;arte fiorentina, di prendere parte riflessiva al nuovo orientamento storiografico introdotto da Hans Jedin e allievi<a href="#_ftn13">[13]</a>, abbandonare &#171;opposizioni e contrapposizioni&#187; consuete, prima tra tutte quella tra Riforma protestante e Controriforma cattolica, e ricercare le motivazioni interne di una Riforma cattolica che modifica in profondit&#224; sia i modi del culto che l&#8217;&#8221;uso&#8221; delle immagini, avviando costumi (artistici, storico-artistici, archeologici) destinati a sopravvivere all&#8217;Ancien R&#233;gime. Non &#232; certo senza significato che Barocchi concluda la nota citata rinviando ai &#171;fondamentali studi&#187; di Paolo Prodi, le cui ricerche sul cardinale Gabriele Paleotti, apparse a cavallo tra Cinquanta e Sessanta, in anni in cui pi&#249; stretta era la collaborazione tra Prodi stesso e Francesco Arcangeli, storico dell&#8217;arte contemporanea e allievo di Roberto Longhi, costituiscono per noi oggi, per ampiezza di documentazione storica, cognizione teologica e ecclesiologica e originalit&#224; storiografica, una sorta di viatico allo studio dell&#8217;arte cinque-secentesca e non solo<a href="#_ftn14">[14]</a>. Se Barocchi sorvola sulle difficolt&#224; di dialogo tra discipline, che Prodi invece richiama in passaggi fortemente polemici, non &#232; da credere che non faccia qui proprie le riserve dello storico bolognese sugli eccessi di formalismo e la &#8220;separatezza&#8221; degli studi storico-artistici<a href="#_ftn15">[15]</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>In che senso diciamo &#171;storia dell&#8217;arte </em>e<em> storia civile&#187;?</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Perch&#233; questo &#232; il punto: stabilire la necessit&#224; di ricognizioni calibrate sulla &#8220;lunga durata&#8221; non cambia solo l&#8217;orizzonte cronologico della ricerca storico-artistica, ma pure il suo &#8220;oggetto&#8221;. Nella storia della penisola, lo ricorda Carlo Dionisotti in un celebre saggio dal titolo <em>Clerici e laici</em> (1960), il contributo di ecclesiastici e religiosi al dibattito artistico, musicale o letterario &#232; difficilmente sopravvalutabile, e la Chiesa per secoli ha intrecciato l&#8217;attivit&#224; di committenza allo svolgimento dell&#8217;azione pastorale. Come distinguere in Italia, a differenza, poniamo, che in Francia, in Inghilterra o negli Stati Uniti, ci&#242; che &#232; specificamente &#8220;artistico&#8221;, ci&#242; che &#232; &#8220;religioso&#8221; e ci&#242; invece che &#232; semplicemente &#8220;civile&#8221;? Sembra superfluo qui ricordare la dottrina delle immagini come &#171;Biblia pauperum&#187;, formulata una prima volta da Gregorio Magno e ripresa innumerevoli volte in seguito, ancora in seno al Concilio tridentino. Per generazioni e generazioni i credenti si sono avvicinati alle Sacre scritture non attraverso i testi, bens&#236; attraverso le immagini dipinte e scolpite, che hanno contribuito nel modo pi&#249; potente a istruire, evangelizzare e radicare la devozione. Le Chiese hanno svolto ufficio di scuole. Usciamo pure dalle Chiese o altri edifici sacri: quanto appena affermato non &#232; meno vero. I predicatori vaganti, lo ha ricordato Michael Baxandall in <em>Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy</em>, apparso nel 1972, si sforzano, con le loro parole, di suscitare &#8220;immagini mentali&#8221; nei fedeli: tutto ci&#242; presuppone che anche platee incolte abbiano vivida familiarit&#224; con episodi evangelici resi memorabili per primi proprio da quadri, mosaici, affreschi, sculture. Non solo: l&#8217;attitudine alla &#171;venerazione&#187; delle immagini, cos&#236; radicata nel mondo cattolico ancora dopo l&#8217;iconoclasmo protestante, si inserisce in un complesso di consuetudini quotidiane, sacramentali e non sacramentali - dall&#8217;educazione alla sanit&#224; all&#8217;assistenza dei bisognosi -, che fanno comunque pernio sulla Chiesa e la sua diramata presenza in tutta la penisola, dove, e questo costituisce eccezione in Europa, essa sostituisce di fatto, sul piano dei processi di unificazione politico-burocratica e culturale, quella monarchia nazionale che esiste altrove e che invece manca, in Italia, sino al compimento della stagione risorgimentale.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Dunque: risulta del tutto antistorico proporsi di distaccare storia della religione (nella triplice accezione di storia della Chiesa, storia della teologia, storia del &#8220;sentimento popolare&#8221;), storia dell&#8217;arte, storia della cultura - come pure si &#232; creduto di poter fare a cavallo tra Otto e Novecento per l&#8217;arte del periodo dell&#8217;Ancien R&#233;gime. Ma questo stesso proposito risulta antistorico anche per il primo e (in parte) secondo Novecento. Non &#232; la breve stagione del futurismo a instaurare una durevole tradizione modernista in Italia (all&#8217;insegna magari della <em>tabula rasa</em>), ma molto pi&#249; <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em> con l&#8217;istanza dei &#8220;recuperi&#8221; e &#8220;ritorni&#8221;. Ed &#232; un&#8217;intera &#171;civilt&#224;&#187;, in <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em>, non semplicemente uno &#8220;stile&#8221;, che si intende tutelare e riaffermare; una &#171;civilt&#224;&#187; classico-cristiana (&#171;mediterranea&#187;) modellata da costumi (in via diretta o indiretta cattolici, si suppone) di carit&#224; e &#171;misura&#187; (o moderazione).</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Provarsi a ricostruire i contesti (materiali e immateriali) che stanno attorno a talune opere eminenti del Novecento in Italia equivale, in molti casi, a misurarsi con la resistenza di dimensioni, se non religiose in senso confessionale, quantomeno cultuali - ed &#232; qui che la singolarit&#224; da cui abbiamo preso le mosse si manifesta in modo pi&#249; convincente. Vale la pena riferirsi a artisti che svolgono il ruolo di mentori del secondo Novecento, o di <em>traits-d&#8217;union</em> tra le due met&#224; del secolo, Fontana e Burri, ad esempio. Se il primo, che ancora nel secondo Novecento svolge parte della propria attivit&#224; in contesti ecclesiastici, nell&#8217;ambito di committenze di tipo tradizionale, non nega (anche a riguardo dei <em>Buchi</em> o nei <em>Tagli</em>, che possono sembrarci pi&#249; &#8220;astratti&#8221;) un&#8217;intenzione latamente religiosa, e comunque di artista sacro, Burri, nel 1968, delega a una giovane critica romana, Marisa Volpi, il compito di chiarire sino a qual punto, in profondit&#224; che vanno molto oltre lo &#8220;stile&#8221;, la sua arte rimanga intimamente connessa alla Grande Tradizione italiana del tardo Medioevo e Primo Rinascimento, a vocazione etico-religiosa pubblica<a href="#_ftn16">[16]</a>. E ancora: che dire di artisti di una o due generazioni pi&#249; giovani, come Pascali, Paolini, De Dominicis, Cucchi, in cui l&#8217;inquietudine per l&#8217;egemonia artistica americana si coniuga al rifiuto del minimalismo (vale a dire a una declinazione contemporanea del timore o sospetto delle immagini o avversione ad esse, intese come oggetto di una possibile &#8220;iconolatria&#8221;) e all&#8217;interesse per immagini invece offerte, in via ironica ma non solo, alla &#171;venerazione&#187; (vale a dire: iconodulia)?</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Il problema dell&#8217;&#171;aura&#187;</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Entra qui in gioco, come pare, la questione benjaminiana dell&#8217;&#171;aura&#187;, vale a dire dell&#8217;&#171;apparizione di una qualche lontananza&#187;. Tradotto in italiano nel 1966, il saggio sull&#8217;<em>Opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;epoca della sua riproducibilit&#224; tecnica </em>(1936)<em> </em>desta immediatamente una vivace discussione. Aderiscono alle posizioni di Benjamin scrittori e intellettuali vicini alla neoavanguardia letteraria, schierati su posizioni per lo pi&#249; marxiste, pronti ad accettare prospettive di storicismo radicale. Nelle intenzioni di Benjamin il saggio ha una validit&#224; congiunturale - le sue tesi, in altre parole, valgono con riferimento al paesaggio artistico e letterario della Repubblica di Weimar -; e ha tratti prescrittivi ben pi&#249; che descrittivi - Benjamin intende cio&#232; inserirsi in una situazione determinata e &#8220;agire&#8221; al suo interno, accentuando mutazioni di contesto e conferendo loro un senso politico &#171;rivoluzionario&#187;. Malgrado tale congiunturalit&#224; delle tesi benjaminiane, esse sono adottate, in Italia, ben al di l&#224; del loro limite storico, e affermate per cos&#236; dire in linea di principio, quasi tesi aventi validit&#224; universale - ancora oggi, mi limito a segnalarlo qui <em>en passant</em>, Massimo Cacciari presenta il saggio, nella sua edizione einaudiana pi&#249; recente, all&#8217;insegna di una &#171;crisi&#187; (dell&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte) da perseguire sempre e in ogni momento<a href="#_ftn17">[17]</a>. Al di l&#224; di considerazioni troppo specifiche, per cui non &#232; questa la sede, resta da ricordare che la pubblicazione italiana dell&#8217;<em>Opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;epoca della sua riproducibilit&#224; tecnica</em> viene a completare, in ambito marxista, un percorso di critica e distacco dalle estetiche idealistiche in auge nella prima met&#224; del secolo, e trova perci&#242; grande e immediato favore, presentandosi quasi come compendio, di grande vivacit&#224; e brillantezza, di una discussione lunga due decenni. Benjamin distingue nel saggio, con riferimento alla singola opera d&#8217;arte, tra &#171;valore espositivo&#187; e &#171;valore di culto&#187;, vale a dire (provo a tradurre) tra dimensione estetica e dimensione teologica (o meglio liturgica). Un&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte, suggerisce, pu&#242; nascere dal culto e per ragioni di culto, caricarsi dunque di profondi significati devozionali; e in seguito decadere a semplice manufatto, essere cio&#232; apprezzata esclusivamente per ragioni di tecnica e forma. Tale processo, aggiunge, cui possiamo senz&#8217;altro dare il nome di &#8220;secolarizzazione&#8221;, si &#232; compiuto in Occidente nel corso del Rinascimento, epoca di cui Benjamin, allievo in questo di Jacob Burckhardt, d&#224; un&#8217;interpretazione riduttivamente profana. Eccoci qui giunti, dunque, al tema centrale di questo mio saggio: il problema di una difesa dell&#8217;&#171;aura&#187; da parte italiana, cattolico-latina e mediterranea. Dobbiamo considerare il contesto italiano degli anni Sessanta e Settanta, caratterizzato, sotto profili estetici e di teoria dell&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte, da un&#8217;agenda di lavoro marxista-storicista, per situare in modo adeguato refrattariet&#224; e resistenze, da parte figurativa, a dissolvere l&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;&#171;epoca&#187;, intendendola come mero &#171;rispecchiamento&#187; e &#171;riflesso&#187; congiunturale, per ribadirne invece, ovviamente in modo sperimentale e problematico, secondo l&#8217;affermazione di Giulio Paolini riprodotta qui in esergo, lo &#171;splendore&#187; - e dunque l&#8217;&#171;aura&#187;, malgrado ogni mutamento di tipo storico o sociale.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Detto in altri termini: osserviamo, al fondo della tradizione modernista italiana, un&#8217;inquietudine che non si d&#224; altrove, quantomeno non con la stessa frequenza e intensit&#224;, una sorta di conflitto tra &#8220;tempo&#8221; ed &#8220;eterno&#8221;, per usare categorie metafisiche tradizionali, con le immagini chiamate a discendere e &#8220;incarnarsi&#8221; nella storia piuttosto che a risolversi in essa, quasi portatrici di una dimensione che pi&#249; volte, ad esempio nel libro-intervista di Carla Lonzi, <em>&#171;Autoritratto&#187;</em> (1969), &#232; ad esempio, e con tutta l&#8217;ambiguit&#224; del caso, chiamata &#171;grazia&#187;<a href="#_ftn18">[18]</a>. Non si tratta certo, da storici, di &#8220;confessionalizzare&#8221; l&#8217;intero Novecento, impresa che risulterebbe del tutto assurda oltrech&#233; errata; ma certo di riconoscere una vocazione auratica, numinosa, laddove altrove, al di fuori dell&#8217;Italia, nella stagione del monocromo, ad esempio, o ancora in seguito, troviamo opere d&#8217;arte che si tengono pi&#249; vicine a questioni sociali, didattiche o altro. In tale senso possiamo senz&#8217;altro cercare di conferire &#8220;contenuti&#8221; alla categoria dell&#8217;&#171;impurit&#224;&#187;, di cui si &#232; parlato in precedenza come tratto distintivo dell&#8217;arte italiana del secondo Novecento: e di considerarla come deposito di una tradizione figurativa, in origine appunto religiosa, potremmo ben dire trecentesca, in cui il &#8220;sensibile&#8221; compare pur sempre, non di rado nelle sue forme pi&#249; soccorrevoli e soavi, talvolta in forme profetiche, ancorch&#233; (o proprio perch&#233;) trasfigurato dal &#8220;sovrasensibile&#8221;. Per Tony Judt, storico e accademico britannico che, in <em>Postwar Europe 1945-2005</em> ha studiato la storia culturale europea al duplice passaggio dell&#8217;inizio della Guerra Fredda e della dissoluzione dell&#8217;URSS, spesso consideriamo in modo troppo inavvertito o distratto l&#8217;importanza che le diverse eredit&#224; religiose hanno avuto almeno per tutta la prima met&#224; del secolo<a href="#_ftn19">[19]</a>. Quanto emerge dallo studio dell&#8217;arte italiana conferma questa affermazione di Judt, estendendone la validit&#224;, in rapporto alle arti figurative, anche per i decenni del secondo dopoguerra. Si &#232; ricordato poco sopra la fortuna italiana del saggio benjaminiano sull&#8217;<em>Opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;epoca della sua riproducibilit&#224; tecnica</em>, al tempo stesso richiamandone l&#8217;adozione nella cerchia della neoavanguardia letteraria (Gruppo &#8216;63 etc.) e del marxismo critico. Si dovr&#224; allora aggiungere che, malgrado le analogie che si &#232; spesso cercato di tracciare e le contiguit&#224; biografiche tra scrittori, intellettuali e artisti, in ambito figurativo prevale un atteggiamento diverso, in qualche modo pi&#249; conservativo; che proprio tale atteggiamento rivela propositi di dissidenza (rispetto agli orientamenti della critica coeva, allineata, per ragioni ideologiche o di mercato, all&#8217;ideologia della <em>tabula rasa</em>); e che le immagini artistiche non sono al tempo interessate, salvo eccezioni, da quel processo di &#8220;secolarizzazione&#8221; e sconsacrazione che investe invece romanzo e soprattutto poesia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Un modernismo antifuturista. Radicalit&#224; e &#171;moderazione&#187;</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Facciamo un passo indietro. Troveremo che tale &#8220;asincronia&#8221;, tra storia letteraria e storia artistica, con gli artisti schierati su posizioni meno distruttive e radicali dei letterati, ha origine nel periodo dell&#8217;<em>entre-deux-guerres</em>, ed &#232;, nell&#8217;immediato secondo dopoguerra, riconosciuto per tempo da storici e critici come Roberto Longhi e Giovanni Contini<a href="#_ftn20">[20]</a>. E&#8217; proprio negli anni successivi alla prima guerra mondiale, infatti, se non immediatamente prima, che in Italia viene ad affermarsi un orientamento critico di cui manca, ad oggi, la storia; orientamento critico s&#236; favorevole alla rottura con l&#8217;eclettismo storicistico di tradizione ottocentesca (che sopravvive nelle Accademie di Belle Arti e incontra il favore della maggior parte dei collezionisti italiani), dunque tra annoverare nel pi&#249; vasto ambito del modernismo internazionale, per&#242; antimarinettiano e ostile all&#8217;avanguardia, cio&#232; a rotture radicali. Orientamento critico, ancora, che possiamo certo rubricare alla voce &#8220;moderazione&#8221;, purch&#233; si ammetta che tale moderazione non ha niente ha che fare con il moderatismo politico. Mi spiego.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A Torino, attorno a Gobetti e a un pittore classicheggiante come Casorati, si crea un indirizzo critico e di gusto che premia, con la scelta di un nuovo rigore compositivo, la rivisitazione di modelli rinascimentali e manieristi, in vista di un ordine e equilibrio compositivo post-futurista e anti-futurista. A Roma si avvia la gi&#224; ricordata esperienza di <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em>, sostenuta dal proposito - di de Chirico, Carr&#224; etc. - di progressivo adattamento delle asprezze &#8220;metafisiche&#8221; alla tradizione &#8220;naturalistica&#8221; del Primo Rinascimento, di pi&#249; larga accessibilit&#224;. A Bologna una rivista come <em>&#171;La Raccolta&#187;</em> chiama a collaborare artisti e scrittori che si pongono il problema del superamento della stagione avanguardistica prebellica - gioca qui un ruolo di primo piano Raffaello Franchi, singolare figura di critico destinata a eclissarsi nel corso degli anni Trenta, non prima per&#242; di avere contribuito a riviste come <em>&#171;Rivoluzione liberale&#187;</em> di Gobetti e <em>&#171;Solaria&#187;</em>, avere provato a declinare in modo proprio il Novecento a Firenze e aver svolto un importante ruolo di <em>trait-d&#8217;union</em> tra la Torino gobettiana e la Firenze solariana -. A Firenze le sperimentazioni futuriste di <em>&#171;Lacerba&#187;</em> sono rigettate da quanti, Soffici <em>in primis</em>, ne erano stati protagonisti: e in Soffici in particolare l&#8217;esperienza della guerra - la &#8220;solidariet&#224; di trincea&#8221; - si riflette nella scelta di uno stile pi&#249; accessibile e popolare.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Fatta salva l&#8217;importanza preminente del Gobetti politico, l&#8217;attenzione prestata sinora al Gobetti critico letterario &#232; stata sin qui superiore a quella riservata invece al critico d&#8217;arte. La circostanza &#232; comprensibile, considerato il numero esiguo di interventi figurativi specifici di Gobetti stesso sulle pagine, poniamo, di <em>&#171;Rivoluzione liberale&#187;</em>. Tuttavia comporta una parziale rimozione di tutto ci&#242; che, in <em>&#171;La Rivoluzione liberale&#187;</em> o sul <em>&#171;Baretti&#187;</em>, &#232; critica d&#8217;arte. E&#8217; vero: anche ampliando il nostro censimento ai collaboratori di Gobetti, gli articoli di tema specificamente figurativo sono rari. Tuttavia non cos&#236; rari, soprattutto se consideriamo quanto, di critica figurativa, &#232; commisto a editoriali politici o culturali; n&#233;, in nessun modo, episodici. <em>Illuminismo</em>, l&#8217;editoriale con cui Gobetti, nel dicembre 1924, nel primo numero del <em>&#171;Baretti&#187;</em>, fissa gli indirizzi politico-culturali della rivista, non potrebbe essere pi&#249; esplicito in merito vuoi all&#8217;interesse per le arti figurative, vuoi al suggerimento impartito alla qualificata compagine redazionale<a href="#_ftn21">[21]</a>. Antifuturismo (a una data in cui i rapporti tra Marinetti e Mussolini sono diventati ben chiari), antiavanguardismo, antisperimentalismo, antielitarismo in chiave decadente e <em>art-pour-l&#8217;art</em>. Gobetti prende posizione non solo contro l&#8217;avanguardia italiana prebellica, ma anche contro tutto ci&#242; che, negli anni di guerra o nell&#8217;immediato dopoguerra, reca pur sempre traccia di ricerche troppo distanti dal senso comune visivo, inclini alla &#8220;metafisica&#8221; o all&#8217;arcaismo. &#171;Contro l&#8217;enfasi dei programmi nascosta in ragionate giustificazioni reagisce in Casorati l&#8217;istinto della pittura e della tradizione&#187;: cos&#236; Gobetti nel saggio <em>Felice Casorati pittore</em><a href="#_ftn22">[22]</a>. Negli scritti politici di Gobetti troviamo sia l&#8217;ammissione che, in ossequio alla teoria crociana dei &#171;distinti&#187;, si pu&#242; essere &#171;creativ[amente] liberali in politica&#187; e &#8220;conservatori&#8221; in arte<a href="#_ftn23">[23]</a>; sia l&#8217;elogio di una &#171;latinit&#224;&#187; che trae risorse sempre nuove dall&#8217;&#171;amore per l&#8217;ordine e la chiarezza&#187;<a href="#_ftn24">[24]</a>. Tutto ci&#242;, che pu&#242; appunto rinviare a un&#8217;agenda critica imperniata sul criterio della misura o &#171;moderazione&#187;, non coincide per niente con &#8220;moderatismo&#8221; in senso politico: la tenace opposizione al regime di Gobetti, destinato a perdere la vita di l&#236; a poco in conseguenza di un&#8217;aggressione squadristica, lo prova a sufficienza. L&#8217;aggettivo &#171;moderato&#187;, che Gobetti usa appunto per Casorati, sta qui <em>tout court</em> per &#171;ingenuo&#187;: che significa &#171;vergine&#187;, bramoso &#171;delle segrete risorse nascoste nell&#8217;irrazionale&#187;, non sviato da &#171;teorie&#187; o &#171;aridezza&#187; raziocinante<a href="#_ftn25">[25]</a>. Si tratta inoltre, per il Gobetti critico d&#8217;arte, di contrapporre la &#171;dignit&#224;&#187; (dell&#8217;esercizio artistico o letterario) alla &#171;genialit&#224;&#187; del singolo artista-vate e artista-istrione, di rifiutare individualistiche &#8220;fughe in avanti&#8221;, magniloquenza ed enfasi superomistica per riportare il processo creativo alla sua utilit&#224; sociale e persino a determinate responsabilit&#224; pubbliche - di semplificazione e chiarificazione ideologica, ad esempio, o di raccordo tra Antico e Moderno nel contesto di una &#171;tradizione&#187; condivisa -; infine di richiamare l&#8217;attenzione sull&#8217;importanza del tessuto culturale diffuso, in arte come in letteratura o altrove, e cio&#232; del pubblico degli appassionati e conoscitori, le cui aspettative sono da tutelare contro gli exploit del &#8220;genio ribelle&#8221; o di isolate, vociferanti cerchie di esteti e (per cos&#236; dire) guastatori. Questa stessa posizione gobettiana, che possiamo certo definire &#171;illuministica&#187; purch&#233; chiariamo che si parla qui di un &#8220;illuminismo&#8221; temperato dal senso della storia, &#232; subito condivisa da barettiani di prima fila, come Umberto Morra di Lavriano, che sulla rivista interviene anche a proposito di arti figurative, o Natalino Sapegno; e risulta poi decisiva per Edoardo Persico, tra i migliori critici d&#8217;arte e di architettura in Italia a cavallo tra anni Venti e Trenta, che sul <em>&#171;Baretti&#187;</em> trova il suo debutto<a href="#_ftn26">[26]</a>. Vale la pena segnalare, a riprova della comune eredit&#224; gobettiana, che sia Morra e Persico, cattolici antifascisti, sia Sapegno, laico, si impegnano, nel corso di carriere destinate inevitabilmente a sopravvivere a Gobetti, a preservare ci&#242; che essi ritengono migliore e pi&#249; degno nella tradizione italiana. Morra in particolare si lega a Bernard Berenson a partire dalla seconda met&#224; degli anni Venti. Nel celebre critico d&#8217;arte e <em>connoisseur</em> americano residente a Firenze, cui Morra &#232; introdotto da Gaetano Salvemini, ritrova molte convinzioni artistiche, letterarie, politiche, comuni sia a lui stesso che a Gobetti.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">I <em>Colloqui con Berenson </em>di Morra, apparsi nel 1963, sono un documento inestimabile di un modo di guardare all&#8217;arte, sia all&#8217;arte contemporanea che all&#8217;arte dei musei, in stretta connessione con tutto ci&#242; che modella e d&#224; vita a una societ&#224;, dalla politica alla scuola, all&#8217;informazione, alla religione<a href="#_ftn27">[27]</a>. Qui, nei <em>Colloqui </em>appunto, pubblicati quando Berenson &#232; ormai morto, per tramandarne la testimonianza attraverso vivaci brani di conversazione, ci si tiene lontani dagli eccessi della moda e altres&#236; dall&#8217;inerte conservazione di tecniche e stili passati: l&#8217;interesse per le arti figurative va di pari passo alla difesa delle istituzioni democratico-liberali e alla riflessione su ci&#242; che, in ogni epoca, ci rende pi&#249; integri, perspicaci e in definitiva umani. Berenson o Morra non sono isolati al tempo, n&#233; Berenson &#232; conosciuto esclusivamente, sino alla sua morte, per le sue qualit&#224; di conoscitore di quadri. Si &#232; perduta forse memoria del vasto consenso che le tesi berensoniane su Picasso, i surrealisti o altro, e per converso la sua difesa di un&#8217;arte &#171;umanistica&#187;, saldamente poggiata sulla tradizione italiana tre-quattrocentesca, trovano in Italia sino ai primi anni Sessanta, orientando (per via diretta o indiretta) scrittori e critici di impostazione cos&#236; diversa tra loro come Mario Praz, Moravia, Carlo Levi, Pasolini, Zolla o Ernesto de Martino. Tuttavia: tale consenso esiste, non poggia su convinzioni o argomenti meramente retrivi e merita oggi, in un momento di generale revisione di ci&#242; che apprezziamo come &#8220;arte contemporanea&#8221;, di essere considerato senza pregiudizi di alcun tipo, avanguardistici o altro. Trascina peraltro con s&#233; motivazioni etico-politiche e religiose: Moravia e Levi, Pasolini e de Martino sono infatti accomunati dalla rivendicazione di un&#8217;appartenenza ad una ben precisa tradizione culturale, europeo-mediterranea; e dal rifiuto di societ&#224; liberiste-liberali di tipo anglo-americano. La difesa dell&#8217;arte &#171;umanistica&#187; (o della tradizione figurativa, contestata dagli astrattisti) &#232; qui parte di una pi&#249; ampia (per pi&#249; versi dilacerata e ambigua) mobilitazione &#8220;identitaria&#8221;. Torniamo a Berenson, e muoviamoci a ritroso nel tempo: troviamo che il critico americano &#232; un riferimento critico ineludibile in Italia gi&#224; nel primo dopoguerra, nell&#8217;ambito di <em>&#171;Valori plastici&#187;</em>. E&#8217; a lui, in definitiva, oltrech&#233; a Gobetti, che dobbiamo, nel nostro paese, la maturazione di orientamenti critici avvertiti in pari misura circa questioni estetiche e questioni <em>lato sensu</em> civili.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Questo articolo<strong> </strong>&#232; apparso in: <em>Nuova informazione bibliografica</em>, 1/2023, Edizioni il Mulino, pp. 87-106</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4Lm9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6664f63-fae0-43ae-a18e-3add8331eba6_2583x1715.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4Lm9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6664f63-fae0-43ae-a18e-3add8331eba6_2583x1715.jpeg" width="1456" height="967" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><div><hr></div><p><a href="#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Per Renzo De Felice (e scuola) e la storia dell&#8217;arte cfr. Michele Dantini, <em>Religioni politiche. La storia dell&#8217;arte alla prova degli studi su fascismo, antifascismo e Resistenza</em>, in: <em>&#171;Il Capitale culturale&#187;</em>, 18, 2018, online @ <a href="https://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/article/view/1942">https://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/article/view/1942</a>.; per Zapponi cfr. Paolo Acanfora e Giovanni Maria Ceci, a cura di, <em>Niccol&#242; Zapponi, uno storico nella Babele della modernit&#224;</em>, numero monografico di <em>&#171;Mondo contemporaneo&#187;</em>, 3, 2017, Franco Angeli, Milano 2018; e Michele Dantini, <em>Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile</em>, il Mulino, Bologna 2022, pp. 246-251 (con riferimento specifico alla storiografia storico-artistica).</p><p><a href="#_ftnref2">[2]</a> Il riferimento qui &#232; al titolo del celebre libro di Ruggero Zangrandi, <em>Il lungo viaggio attraverso il fascismo</em>, Einaudi, Torino 1948.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3">[3]</a> Massimo Firpo, <em>Gli affreschi di Pontormo a San Lorenzo. Eresia, politica e cultura nella Firenze di Cosimo I</em>, Einaudi, Torino 1997; ID., <em>Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici. Il mondo di Lorenzo Lotto tra Riforma e Controriforma</em>, Laterza, Roma|Bari 2001; Massimo Firpo, Fabrizio Biferali, <em>Immagini ed eresie nell&#8217;Italia del Cinquecento</em>, Laterza, Roma|Bari 2016; Carlo Ginzburg, <em>Indagini su Piero</em>, Einaudi, Torino 2001 (1994); Ottavia Niccoli, <em>Vedere con gli occhi del cuore</em>, Laterza, Roma|Bari 2011; Adriano Prosperi, Eresie, Quodlibet, Macerata 2021 (2010).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4">[4]</a> Mi limito a segnalare, nell&#8217;impossibilit&#224; di stilare qui una bibliografia completa, l&#8217;importante volume, a cura di Giuseppe Antonio Guazzelli, Raimondo Michetti e Francesco Scorza Barcellona, a cura di, <em>Cesare Baronio tra santit&#224; e scrittura storica</em>, Viella, Roma 2012; e, in tema di teoria dell&#8217;immagine, la recente raccolta di saggi, a cura di Wietse de Boer, Karl A. E. Enenkel e Walter S. Melion, <em>Jesuit Image Theory</em>, Brill, Leida|Boston 2016. Per l&#8217;uso delle immagini nella tradizione filippino|oratoriana oratoriano cfr. AA. VV., La regola e la fama. San Filippo Neri e l&#8217;arte, Mondadori Electa, Milano 1995. Infine, ancora sul tema dell&#8217;arte della Riforma cattolica: Susan Merriam, <em>Seventeenth-Century Flemish Garland Paintings: Still Life, Vision, and the Devotional Image</em>, Ashgate, Londra 2016.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5">[5]</a> Suzanne Penn riflette sul modo in cui l&#8217;evocazione di temi tratti dall&#8217;iconografia religiosa caratterizza periodicamente il lavoro di Pistoletto in <em>&#8220;La complicit&#224; dei materiali&#8221; nei dipinti e nei Quadri specchianti di Pistoletto</em>, in: <em>Michelangelo Pistoletto. Da uno a molti, 1956-1974</em>, cat. esp., a cura di Carlos Basualdo, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2.11.2010|16.1.2011; Maxxi, Roma, 4.3.2011|15.8.2011, Electa, Milano 2011, p. 179. Per Pascali e il mito mediterraneo cfr. invece Val&#233;rie Da Costa, <em>Pino Pascali: r&#233;tour &#224; la M&#233;diterran&#233;e</em>, les presses du r&#233;el, Digione 2015.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6">[6]</a> Traggo il termine &#171;impurit&#224;&#187; da Richard Flood e Frances. Morris, <em>Introduction: Zero to Infinity</em>, in: Richard Flood e Frances Morris, a cura di, <em>Zero to Infinity. Arte povera 1962-1972</em>, exh. cat., Tate Modern, London, 31.5|19.8.2001; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 13.10.2001|13.1.2002; The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 10.3.2002|11.8.2002; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Gardens, Washington D. C., 17.10.2002|12.1.2003, p. 16 e ss.; ibid., Corinna Criticos, <em>Reading Arte Povera</em>, p. 75 e ss.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7">[7]</a> Per l&#8217;&#171;iconoclastia&#187; della tradizione anglo-americana anche recente cfr. James Simpson, <em>Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition</em>, Oxford University, Oxford 2010, pp. 11-12. Sul tema vd. infra, nota 10.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref8">[8]</a> Salvatore Settis, <em>Continuit&#224;, distanza, conoscenza. Tre usi dell&#8217;antico</em>, in: ID., a cura di, <em>Memoria dell&#8217;antico nell&#8217;arte italiana</em>, iii, <em>Dalla tradizione all&#8217;archeologia</em>, Einaudi, Torino 1986, pp. 375-486; e Michele Dantini, <em>Arte italiana postbellica: metodi e prospettive</em>, in: Lara Conte e Michele Dantini, a cura di, <em>Arte italiana postbellica</em>, <em>&#171;Predella&#187;</em>, numero monografico, 11, 2017, ETS, Pisa 2017, pp. 11-35, online @<a href="http://www.predella.it/index.php/component/content/article/53-issue-no-37/335-37-mono-arte-italiana-postbellica-prospettive-e-metodi.html">http://www.predella.it/index.php/component/content/article/53-issue-no-37/335-37-mono-arte-italiana-postbellica-prospettive-e-metodi.html</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref9">[9]</a> Carlo Levi, <em>L&#8217;arte e gli italiani</em> (1955), oggi in: ID., <em>Il coraggio dei miti</em>, a cura di Gigliola De Donato, De Donato, Bari 1975, pp. 77-78.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref10">[10]</a> Per un&#8217;introduzione al tema cfr. David Freedberg, <em>Art and Iconoclasm, 1525-1580: The Case of the Northern Netherlands</em> (1986), oggi in: ID., <em>Iconoclasm</em>, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago|Londra 2021, pp. 51-94 (questa raccolta di saggi, che giunge sino all&#8217;oggi, &#232; utile a sollecitare ricerche diacroniche e transculturali sul problema &#171;iconoclasmo&#187;, che non esitino a considerare circostanze anche novecentesche secondo prospettive di storia teologica e religiosa e con categorie tratte dalla dogmatica relativa alle immagini di culto); e Koenraad Jonckheere, <em>Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566-1585</em>, Mercatorfonds, Anversa 2013.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref11">[11]</a> Paola Barocchi, <em>Prefazione</em>, in: Barbara Agosti, <em>Collezionismo e archeologia cristiana nel Seicento</em>, Jaca Book, Milano 1996, p. 7.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref12">[12]</a> Cfr. Paola Barocchi, <em>Storia moderna dell&#8217;arte in Italia. Manifesti, polemiche, documenti</em>, 3 voll., iii*, <em>Dal Novecento ai dibattiti sulla figura e sul monumentale 1925-1945</em>, Einaudi, Torino 1997; e iii**, <em>Tra neorealismo ed anni Novanta 1945-1990, Einaudi</em>, Torino 1992.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref13">[13]</a> Per la nozione di &#171;Riforma cattolica&#187; &#232; fondamentale il testo di Hans Jedin, <em>Riforma cattolica o controriforma? Tentativo di chiarimento dei concetti con riflessioni sul Concilio di Trento</em>, Brescia 1959 (1947).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref14">[14]</a> Paolo Prodi, <em>Il Cardinale Gabriele Paleotti (1522-1597)</em>, il Mulino, Bologna 2022 (1959); e ID., <em>Ricerche sulla teorica delle arti figurative nella Riforma cattolica</em>, in: <em>&#171;Archivio di storia della piet&#224;&#187;</em>, iv, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, pp. 123-212 (oggi in: <em>Arte e piet&#224; nella Chiesa tridentina</em>, il Mulino, Bologna 2014, pp. 153-190).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref15">[15]</a> A pendant delle critiche di Prodi all&#8217;impreparazione storico-teologica degli storici dell&#8217;arte si pu&#242; collocare Giovanni Pozzi, <em>Sull&#8217;orlo di un visibile parlare</em>, Adelphi, Milano 1993, in part. pp. 18-72.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref16">[16]</a> Marisa Volpi, <em>Alberto Burri</em>, in: Carla Lonzi, Tommaso Trini, Marisa Volpi Orlandini, a cura di, <em>Tecniche e materiali</em>, in: <em>&#171;marcatr&#233;&#187;</em>, 37-40, maggio 1968, pp. 66-85.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref17">[17]</a> Massimo Cacciari, <em>Il produttore malinconico</em>, in: Walter Benjamin, <em>L&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;epoca della sua riproducibilit&#224; tecnica</em>, Einaudi, Torino 2014, pp. v-xlvi.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref18">[18]</a> Carla Lonzi, <em>Autoritratto</em>, et al., Milano 2010 (1969), pp. 288-289 e passim.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref19">[19]</a> Tony Judt, <em>Postwar Europe 1945-2005</em>, Laterza, Roma|Bari 2017, pp. 325 e passim.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref20">[20]</a> Michele Dantini, <em>Ecfrasi da punti di vista critico-culturali. Roberto Longhi e le &#171;Proposte per una critica d&#8217;arte&#187; (1950)</em>, in: ID., <em>Arte e sfera pubblica</em>, Donzellli, Roma 2016, pp. 121-122 e nota 164 pp. 327-328.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref21">[21]</a> Piero Gobetti, <em>Illuminismo</em>, in: <em>&#171;Il Baretti&#187;</em>, i, 1-23 dicembre 1924, p. 1.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref22">[22]</a> ID., <em>Felice Casorati pittore</em>, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 2018 (1923), p. 86.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref23">[23]</a> ID., <em>Opera critica</em>, i, <em>Arte - Religione - Filosofia</em>, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 2013, p. 163.</p><p><a href="#_ftnref24">[24]</a> IBID., p. 176.</p><p><a href="#_ftnref25">[25]</a> Piero Gobetti, <em>Felice Casorati pittore</em>, cit., pp. 87-89.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref26">[26]</a> Un profilo &#8220;ideologico&#8221; di Edoardo Persico in Michele Dantini, <em>&#171;Precisione di un&#8217;ideologia&#187;, Edoardo Persico tra Venti e Trenta: arte, critica, architettura</em>, in: ID., <em>Arte e politica in Italia tra fascismo e Repubblica</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2018, pp. 9-58.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref27">[27]</a> Umberto Morra di Lavriano, <em>Colloqui con Bernard Berenson</em>, Garzanti, Milano 1963.</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5prd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff64a1f19-c9b0-445a-b86a-f05e05d1079e_1181x1279.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;">BIBLIOGRAFIA:</p><p style="text-align: justify;">David Armitage, Jo Guldi, <em>Manifesto per la storia</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2016</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Elisa Bassetto, a cura di, <em>Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile. Intervista a Michele Dantini</em>, in: <em>&#171;Finestre sull&#8217;arte&#187;</em>, 12.8.2022, online @ <a href="https://www.finestresullarte.info/interviste/contro-i-miti-storiografici-intervista-michele-dantini-storia-dell-arte-e-storia-civile">https://www.finestresullarte.info/interviste/contro-i-miti-storiografici-intervista-michele-dantini-storia-dell-arte-e-storia-civile</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Fabio Benzi, <em>Arte in Italia tra le due guerre</em>, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, <em>Arte e politica in Italia tra fascismo e Repubblica</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2018</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, <em>Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile. Il Novecento</em>, il Mulino, Bologna 2022, <a href="https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815295897#">qui</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, Bernard Berenson e l&#8217;arte contemporanea, Elcta, Milano 2025, <a href="https://www.electa.it/prodotto/bernard-berenson-e-larte-contemporanea/">qui</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Renzo De Felice, a cura di, <em>Futurismo, cultura e politica</em>, Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli, Torino 1988</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ernesto de Martino <em>La fine del mondo, Contributo all&#8217;analisi delle apocalissi culturali</em>, Einaudi, Torino 2019</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Carlo Dionisotti, <em>Chierici e laici</em>, Interlinea, Novara 1995 (1960)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Flavio Fergonzi, <em>Filologia del Novecento</em>, Electa, Milano 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">David Freedberg, <em>Art and Iconoclasm, 1525-1580: The Case of the Northern Netherlands</em> (1986), oggi in: ID., Iconoclasm, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago|Londra 2021</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Emilio Gentile, <em>L&#8217;Italia tra le arti e le scienze di Mario Sironi. Miti grandiosi e giganteschi rivolgimenti</em>, Laterza, Roma-Bari 2014</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Piero Gobetti, <em>Felice Casorati pittore</em>, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 2018 (1923)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Piero Gobetti, <em>Opera critica</em>, i, <em>Arte - Religione - Filosofia</em>, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Koenraad Jonckheere, <em>Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566-1585</em>, Mercatorfonds, Anversa 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Carlo Levi, <em>L&#8217;arte e gli italiani</em> (1955), oggi in: ID., <em>Il coraggio dei miti</em>, a cura di Gigliola De Donato, De Donato, Bari 1975</p><p>Luisa Mangoni, <em>L&#8217;interventismo della cultura: Intellettuali e riviste del fascismo</em>, Laterza, Bari|Roma 1974</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Umberto Morra, <em>Colloqui con Berenson</em>, Garzanti, Milano 1953</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Umberto Morra, <em>Gobetti</em>, UTET, Torino 1984</p><p>Francesco Perfetti, <em>Futurismo e politica</em>, Le Lettere, Firenze 2009</p><p>Roberto Pertici, Un liberale del nostro tempo: Umberto Morra di Lavriano, in: Umberto Morra di Lavriano e l&#8217;opposizione etica al fascismo, Edizioni della Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa 1985, pp. 51-145</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Niccol&#242; Zapponi, <em>I miti e le ideologie</em>, ESI, Napoli 1981</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Grazie per aver letto <em>The Bibliophile</em>, la sezione del blog dedicata alla riconsiderazione di classici, anteprime, reprints e <em>rariora</em>. Iscriviti per ricevere i prossimi articoli e supportare il mio lavoro.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Iscriviti ora&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Iscriviti ora</span></a></p><p>Sei gi&#224; iscritto? 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SeOs!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927a7b48-d318-4b72-bef4-b013d80d0c35_1000x1416.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SeOs!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927a7b48-d318-4b72-bef4-b013d80d0c35_1000x1416.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SeOs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927a7b48-d318-4b72-bef4-b013d80d0c35_1000x1416.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SeOs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927a7b48-d318-4b72-bef4-b013d80d0c35_1000x1416.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; <strong>The Archipelago of the Twentieth Century: Toward a New Paradigm of Art History</strong></p><p>In the decades closest to our own, the history of twentieth-century art has increasingly diverged from a mere &#8220;history of the avant-gardes.&#8221; This or that &#8220;avant-garde&#8221; has revealed itself as nothing more than a moment within a vaster constellation; we have ceased to believe in a linear and evolutionary course of &#8220;art history,&#8221; and the &#8220;before&#8221; and the &#8220;after&#8221; (or Ancient and Modern) have become intertwined, rendering the notion of the tabula rasa first doubtful and eventually entirely unserviceable. It has been proven that the movements recognized as avant-garde&#8212;whether in the pre-war era, the entre-deux-guerres, or the decades of the Cold War&#8212;did not only cultivate their own &#8220;museum,&#8221; which is to say precise historical-artistic predilections, often supporting, from the perspective of the history of taste, connoisseurs and scholars engaged in the promotion of artistic eras or civilizations considered &#8220;minor&#8221; until that moment; they also became first-person protagonists of revaluations and &#8220;discoveries&#8221;: for example, African and Oceanic art at the time of the historical avant-gardes, Pre-Columbian and Inuit art between the two wars, and Native American art at the turn of the 1940s and 50s. If until the recent past the history of contemporary art thus seemed a straight line, with the starting point and the arrival point clearly established on paper, today we tend to read the twentieth century as an archipelago: there exists no single criterion of evaluation (the &#8220;abstract&#8221; over the figurative, let us say); instead, what prevails is a great plurality of visual strategies that correspond to different conjunctural instances and research agendas.</p><p>We have thus transitioned, one might say in summary, from a &#8220;monocentric&#8221; narrative, which invariably assigned to Paris (for the first half of the century) or New York (for the second post-war period) the role of undisputed capital of contemporary art (and to the artistic movements that met with the favor of the intellectual elites of those two metropolises the rank of planetary avant-gardes), to &#8220;polycentric&#8221; narratives, which involve a greater diversity of stakes and &#8220;regional&#8221; variants to be considered case by case in their specificity. To write about the history of contemporary art today therefore means &#8220;to write about places,&#8221; almost on the model of ethnography&#8212;cities, circles, cultural and civil institutions, genealogies, figurative traditions. It also means rejecting a &#8220;history of style&#8221; conceived, so to speak, with a &#8220;wide mesh,&#8221; decade by decade, potentially &#8220;universalist&#8221; in character, in favor of a &#8220;narrow-mesh&#8221; reconstruction of individual historically situated contexts, within which &#8220;art,&#8221; &#8220;style,&#8221; and &#8220;aesthetics&#8221; intertwine in binding and minute ways with political and religious discourse, among others. The artistic and cultural landscape that is thus offered to historians, always with reference to the art of the twentieth century, is inevitably more fractured and problematic: and, most importantly, the usual demarcations between Center and Periphery appear uncertain and perpetually revocable.</p><p><strong>Art History and History in Art: The Contribution of Historians to the Renewal of a Discipline</strong></p><p>Scholars who are not art historians tout court, but rather political and cultural historians, who are generally not looked upon as authors of contributions of great relevance regarding the figurative arts, have contributed in a decisive measure to the renewal of research agendas and methods in Italy. Nevertheless, it is today beyond dispute that Renzo De Felice and Emilio Gentile, Francesco Perfetti and Niccol&#242; Zapponi, and to a lesser extent Luisa Mangoni, to name but a few, have considerably expanded the reconnaissance of the contexts within which artists and movements operate, linking political history and art history more closely than was done in the past [1]. If De Felice initiated an entire field of research on the social and cultural continuities between the two halves of the century&#8212;continuities effectively traceable despite dramatic political and institutional ruptures&#8212;and, in treating &#8220;political liturgy&#8221; or the &#8220;nationalization of the masses,&#8221; recognized the importance of studying artworks from the standpoint of a history of totalitarianisms, Gentile and Perfetti, both students of De Felice, focused on Futurism, illuminating both its lesser-known and considered &#8220;minor&#8221; aspects, as well as its contiguities with Fascism captured in its most diverse facets. We owe instead to Zapponi, also a student of De Felice, in the essay titled I Miti e le ideologie (1981), a first attempt to study the transition from Fascism to the Republic, particularly the years from 1943 to 1948. Zapponi draws copiously here upon the interpretation of artworks. He thus achieves a twofold advantage: he expands the documentary base of his research by utilizing sources that are also figurative, and he detaches himself from the mere memoirs of the protagonists of the &#8220;long journey,&#8221; who have so often proved unreliable [2]. This increasing interest of historians in artworks understood as documents is, on the other hand, a circumstance worth noting: such interest manifests itself not only in the study of the twentieth century, but also in research concerning more ancient eras, such as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. I shall mention later Paolo Prodi and his research, in many ways so anticipatory, on Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti and the aesthetics of the Counter-Reformation. Let us consider now, by way of example, the studies of Massimo Firpo on Valdesianism and religious spiritualism in sixteenth-century Italy, so rich in historical-artistic lessons&#8212;pertaining, let us say, to Michelangelo rather than to Lotto and Pontormo&#8212;; the studies of Carlo Ginzburg on Piero della Francesca; those of Ottavia Niccoli and Adriano Prosperi on the sixteenth century as both artistic and religious [3]; or again the many research projects involving the collaboration of Church historians, art historians, and archaeologists dedicated over these last three decades to eminent interpreters of the Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation), such as Cesare Baronio, Carlo and Federico Borromeo, and others [4]. On one occasion, Firpo specifies that he is interested not in art history understood formalistically as connoisseurship, but rather in &#8220;history in art&#8221;: precisely the study of artworks understood as documents of a broader and more general story, moving in the wake of profound upheavals that transcend the simple history of &#8220;taste&#8221; and escape the narrow scope of studies on collectors and the erudite. It is evident that here we encounter a methodological suggestion useful even beyond the period of Firpo&#8217;s immediate competence&#8212;the Italian sixteenth century: a suggestion that makes sense to gather and attempt to render fruitful even for the study of the twentieth century. Art history&#8212;or &#8220;history in art,&#8221; if one prefers&#8212;has objectives and motivations that go beyond the disciplinary hinges currently undisputed in the university sphere, namely conservation and teaching: in fact, it is history tout court.</p><p><strong>&#8220;Impurity&#8221;: A Privilege?</strong></p><p>Due to the traits of singularity and originality that characterize it, Italian art of the twentieth century has everything to gain from the paradigm shift just outlined. Long measured against the yardstick of the Parisian or New York &#8220;avant-gardes,&#8221; abstract or &#8220;conceptual,&#8221; it reveals instead a constant inclination toward the &#8220;numinous,&#8221; the &#8220;succorable,&#8221; or the marvelous. This inclination manifests itself not only when one encounters explicitly figurative styles&#8212;for example, in the period between the two wars, introduced in Italy by the experience of Valori plastici, the magazine founded by Mario Broglio in 1919, to which de Chirico, Carr&#224;, Savinio, Emilio Cecchi, and others collaborated&#8212;but also when such figurative styles fail, for example in the 1950s and 60s. Questions have often been raised, in relation to Arte Povera for instance, regarding the particular relationship that artists such as Pascali, or Pistoletto, or Paolini, or Boetti establish with a world of pre-existing images, of historical-artistic memories and traditions [5]. Sometimes non-Italian scholars have expressed astonishment at that &#8220;impurity&#8221; which, in their eyes, distinguishes precisely the Italian art of the 1960s and 70s from the Northern European and Anglo-American &#8220;conceptualism,&#8221; which it nonetheless approaches, but which moves from radically different premises [6]. By &#8220;impurity&#8221; we must in no way understand anything invalidating here: rather, a greater availability to the image understood almost as a &#8220;visitation,&#8221; an unpredictable deposit of a millennial historical-artistic memory; and, conversely, a distrust for everything that, in critical discourse, might appear too rigid and normative. In other words: we find here, in the middle of the twentieth century, a juxtaposition that has accompanied the history of Christianity for centuries, modeled liturgy, and divided peoples and Churches: I refer to the contrast between iconodules and iconoclasts, or if one prefers, to the contention over sacred images, the enduring relevance of which has been recognized&#8212;not without reason&#8212;even with reference to the most recent artists, artworks, or movements [7].</p><p>If we admit the distinctive, and even unique, trait of the Italian twentieth century, then several questions immediately arise. From where does such &#8220;uniqueness&#8221; descend? Which categories, historical, aesthetic, or otherwise, best describe it? These are, ultimately, the questions that the most recent artistic historiography has sought to answer, setting aside abstract or doctrinaire interpretive models prevalent until almost today, especially in the study of the late twentieth century, and engaging instead in the concrete search for figurative sources and traditions. This has been done with reference to Fontana and his Tagli (Cuts), recognizing not only their implicit &#8220;narrative&#8221; but the underlying tradition; an attempt has been made to do so with reference to Piero Manzoni and his Achromes, previously approached from the exclusive point of view of &#8220;non-figuration&#8221;; it has been done, again, with reference to Pistoletto, showing the artist&#8217;s constant interest in works of tradition. It seems superfluous here to multiply examples: it is sufficient to outline a new research direction, more attentive to &#8220;continuities&#8221; and &#8220;rediscoveries&#8221; and less disposed to credit (and celebrate) irreparable ruptures. On the other hand, it is necessary to be clear on this point: in paying attention to so-to-speak &#8220;citationist&#8221; customs of Italian art of the 1950s&#8211;70s, one does not wish to assert the existence of attitudes that are in some way antiquarian, sentimentally historicist, or neo-romantic; but rather critical and experimental attitudes. &#8220;Citation&#8221; here is mostly equivalent to &#8220;verification,&#8221; in the sense in which Fortini uses the term in the famous collection of essays titled Verifica dei poteri, dated 1965: it is therefore equivalent to reinventing, to conferring new forms upon passed-away topoi or iconographies, to &#8220;verifying&#8221; precisely the &#8220;practicability&#8221; of the Ancient (or better: of the Origins) and to regenerating both, accompanying their reformulation in a profoundly different historical-cultural context. Indeed, there remains, in the eyes of de Chirico or Carr&#224; just as in those of Fontana or Burri, the &#8220;trauma&#8221; of historical distance, of the rupture: which is simultaneously artistic, political, and social [8].</p><p>In the first post-war period, the reasons for the decline, between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, of the great Italian artistic tradition spanning from the thirteenth to the eighteenth century&#8212;centered on illustrious themes and narratives of history and religion, with Giambattista Tiepolo perhaps considered its last interpreter&#8212;are questioned; in the second post-war period, however, it is the integration of Italy into the Atlantic context that constitutes a problem, because such integration, following the wartime catastrophe and the collapse of the Fascist regime, is accomplished in conditions of political and military subordination and brings with it the danger of the disappearance of Italian art and culture tout court. How does one confront a prestigious tradition, one&#8217;s own, if one belongs to a nation that abruptly finds itself peripheral? And how can one restore cosmopolitan dialogues after decades of isolation? This is the point at the fateful date of 1945 (or, if one prefers, 1943).</p><p>Let us consider, almost as a locus classicus of a certain anthropological-cultural reflection taking place in the country during the second post-war period, Levi&#8217;s short text L&#8217;arte e gli italiani, dated 1955: which should be included, yet is not, in any Levian anthology of &#8220;political writings.&#8221; &#8220;There is something proper and unique,&#8221; Levi prophesies, here in the guise of a morphologist, &#8220;which ensures that Italy, alone or nearly so among nations, presents itself not only as extremely rich in an inexhaustible treasure of artworks of the past, always renewed from century to century until today, but such that this treasure of art never becomes a dead thing, or a museum, but lives together with the entire country, forms an essential part of it, serves as a model for daily life, and is in turn modified by it; it is a document of past history, and history itself&#8221; [9]. Levi reflects here on a particular relationship that unites the spectator (the community of spectators) to the painted or sculpted images. In Italy, this is his thesis, such a relationship finds an elective manifestation in the &#8220;long duration&#8221; (longue dur&#233;e) that joins Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the &#8220;confessional age.&#8221; Levi seeks here, in other words, something like a particular &#8220;anthropology&#8221; (both artistic and religious) underlying the popular and everyday appreciation of the artwork. It is interesting that Levi&#8217;s passionate tribute to Italy concludes with the rejection of the &#8220;abstract aestheticism of today&#8217;s professors,&#8221; by which must be understood primarily Venturi and Argan, guilty, in Levi&#8217;s eyes, of supporting international abstractionism: to the Mediterranean symbolic world (or to the &#8220;anthropology&#8221; just mentioned), in the opinion of the author of Christ Stopped at Eboli, the (Protestant) devaluation of the sensible world remains foreign.</p><p>&#8220;Verification&#8221; (as a method) and survival (as the stake): these may be the terms that best describe the twentieth-century Italian artistic workshop, that is to say, of that particular modernism that prevails in Italy between the early and late twentieth century. To measure oneself against the possible (but never certain) survival of the cultural heritage&#8212;more concretely: of an illustrious artistic tradition&#8212;; and to verify its conditions of topicality in a world marked by Anglo-American hegemony and thus also by the affirmation of different artistic traditions, matured within a civil, cultural, and above all religious history different from the history of Catholic countries.</p><p><strong>A Narrative Calibrated on the &#8220;Longue Dur&#233;e&#8221;: Iconoclasm and Iconoduly in the Twentieth Century</strong></p><p>We arrive here at the grafting of the history of contemporary Italian art (and not only) onto the trunk of religious historiography concerned with the &#8220;confessional era.&#8221; More particularly, moving backward in search of distinctive traits of a regional or macro-regional tradition&#8212;the Italian (or &#8220;Latin,&#8221; if you will)&#8212;with the objective of a history that is not mere chronicle, we experience the long-term consequences of the sixteenth-seventeenth-century conflict over the use of sacred images, which divided the Catholic Church from the Protestant Churches. This is certainly not the place to retrace the history of iconoclasm, nor the vast body of literature accompanying, for a long part of the sixteenth century, the various episodes of mobilization against images taking place with increasing violence in Switzerland, France, England, and the Netherlands [10]. What is certain is that precisely the destruction of paintings, sculptures, and sacred furnishings, and the burning of entire churches, established a distance between Catholic Europe and Reformed Europe such as had never existed before. In different ways and measures&#8212;more tolerant the Lutheran Church, more intransigent the Swiss followers of Calvin&#8212;the Reformed Churches rejected the devotional customs prevalent until then, denied the veneration of images (the term &#8220;venerazione,&#8221; closer in meaning to &#8220;deference&#8221; and &#8220;respect,&#8221; translates into Italian the Greek proskynesis, with which ecclesiastical tradition, since the Second Council of Nicaea held in 787, had distinguished the attitude of worship to be held toward holy images. &#8220;Adoration,&#8221; latreia, was instead reserved for God alone) and established that representations of the Madonna, the Saints, or otherwise should not be given, nor should one genuflect before them, carry them in procession, adorn them with garlands of flowers, etc. (as for Christ, Calvin allowed that the Baptism and the Last Supper could be represented, but nothing else). Today we struggle to understand how the debate over images could have dragged souls to the point of ferocity. The fact remains that precisely the long season of sixteenth-century iconoclasms marked the end of an artistic tradition common to the different parts of Europe and initiated a process whose consequences were destined to prove extremely long-lived: so much so as to be reflected, even centuries later, in the middle of the twentieth century.</p><p>Paola Barocchi, a scholar of Michelangelo, Vasari, and sixteenth-century historical-artistic treatises, who recently passed away, observed once in a text as brief as it is precious, dated 1995, that &#8220;a rereading of the artistic historiography of the Counter-Reformation has been underway for some time, seeking to overcome oppositions and juxtapositions, valorizing in the Italian tradition a continuity that finds great scope in the reflection on the classical world&#8221; [11]. The key term here is &#8220;continuity&#8221;: which will suggest to the perceptive reader, aware of Barocchi&#8217;s twentieth-century interests as well [12], the extension to the twentieth century of&#8212;and obviously the verification of&#8212;a certain historiographical strategy of &#8220;valorization [of] continuities.&#8221; To those who, quite understandably, might hasten to object that a great deal of time passes between the &#8220;confessional era&#8221; and the contemporary world, one could easily counter, first, that the times and &#8220;chronologies&#8221; of art history are not at all comparable to the times and chronologies of political history, and, second, that precisely the story of Valori plastici, recalled shortly above, introduces a twentieth century that is both modernist and traditionalist, designed in Italy under the banner of the recollective reinvention of art between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. On the other hand, it is necessary to read between the lines of Barocchi&#8217;s calm reflection to understand its latitude and secretly &#8220;militant&#8221; intention. That is to say, for the Florentine art historian, it is a matter of taking a reflective part in the new historiographical orientation introduced by Hans Jedin and his students [13], abandoning customary &#8220;oppositions and juxtapositions,&#8221; first and foremost that between the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, and researching the internal motivations of a Catholic Reformation that profoundly modified both the modes of worship and the &#8220;use&#8221; of images, initiating customs (artistic, historical-artistic, archaeological) destined to survive the Ancien R&#233;gime. It is certainly not without significance that Barocchi concludes the cited note by referring to the &#8220;fundamental studies&#8221; of Paolo Prodi, whose research on Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, appearing at the turn of the 1950s and 60s&#8212;years in which the collaboration between Prodi himself and Francesco Arcangeli, a contemporary art historian and student of Roberto Longhi, was closest&#8212;constitutes for us today, for its breadth of historical documentation, theological and ecclesiological knowledge, and historiographical originality, a sort of viaticum to the study of sixteenth-seventeenth-century art and beyond [14]. If Barocchi glosses over the difficulties of dialogue between disciplines, which Prodi instead recalls in strongly polemical passages, it is not to be believed that she does not make her own here the reservations of the Bolognese historian regarding the excesses of formalism and the &#8220;separateness&#8221; of historical-artistic studies [15].</p><p><strong>In what sense do we say &#8220;Art History and Civil History&#8221;?</strong></p><p>Because this is the point: establishing the necessity of reconnaissance calibrated on the &#8220;longue dur&#233;e&#8221; changes not only the chronological horizon of historical-artistic research, but also its &#8220;object.&#8221; In the history of the peninsula, as Carlo Dionisotti reminds us in a famous essay titled Clerici e laici (1960), the contribution of ecclesiastics and religious figures to artistic, musical, or literary debate is difficult to overestimate, and the Church for centuries intertwined commissioning activity with the carrying out of pastoral action. How does one distinguish in Italy&#8212;unlike, let us say, in France, England, or the United States&#8212;what is specifically &#8220;artistic,&#8221; what is &#8220;religious,&#8221; and what is instead simply &#8220;civil&#8221;? It seems superfluous here to recall the doctrine of images as Biblia pauperum, formulated for the first time by Gregory the Great and taken up countless times thereafter, even within the Tridentine Council. For generations upon generations, believers approached the Sacred Scriptures not through texts, but through painted and sculpted images, which contributed in the most powerful way to instructing, evangelizing, and rooting devotion. Churches performed the office of schools. Let us even step out of churches or other sacred buildings: what has just been asserted is no less true. Wandering preachers, as Michael Baxandall reminded us in Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, appearing in 1972, strive with their words to evoke &#8220;mental images&#8221; in the faithful: all this presupposes that even uneducated audiences have a vivid familiarity with evangelical episodes rendered memorable first by paintings, mosaics, frescoes, and sculptures. Not only that: the attitude toward the &#8220;venerazione&#8221; of images, so rooted in the Catholic world even after Protestant iconoclasm, is part of a complex of daily customs, sacramental and non-sacramental&#8212;from education to health care to assistance for the needy&#8212;which nonetheless hinge upon the Church and its widespread presence throughout the peninsula, where, and this constitutes an exception in Europe, it effectively replaces, on the level of the processes of politico-bureaucratic and cultural unification, that national monarchy which exists elsewhere and which is instead lacking in Italy until the completion of the Risorgimento era.</p><p>Therefore: it proves entirely ahistorical to propose to detach the history of religion (in the threefold sense of Church history, history of theology, history of &#8220;popular sentiment&#8221;), art history, and cultural history&#8212;as people indeed believed they could do at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries for the art of the Ancien R&#233;gime period. But this same proposal proves ahistorical even for the early and (in part) late twentieth century. It is not the brief season of Futurism that establishes a lasting modernist tradition in Italy (under the banner perhaps of the tabula rasa), but much more so Valori plastici with its instance of &#8220;recoveries&#8221; and &#8220;returns.&#8221; And it is an entire &#8220;civilization&#8221; in Valori plastici, not simply a &#8220;style,&#8221; that one intends to protect and reaffirm; a classical-Christian (&#8220;Mediterranean&#8221;) &#8220;civilization&#8221; modeled by customs (directly or indirectly Catholic, one assumes) of charity and &#8220;measure&#8221; (or moderation).</p><p>Attempting to reconstruct the contexts (material and immaterial) that surround certain eminent works of the twentieth century in Italy is equivalent, in many cases, to measuring oneself against the resistance of dimensions that are, if not religious in a confessional sense, at least cultic&#8212;and it is here that the singularity from which we started manifests itself most convincingly. It is worth referring to artists who perform the role of mentors of the second half of the century, or of traits-d&#8217;union between the two halves of the century&#8212;Fontana and Burri, for example. If the former, who even in the late twentieth century carries out part of his activity in ecclesiastical contexts within the scope of traditional-type commissions, does not deny (also regarding the Buchi or in the Tagli, which may seem more &#8220;abstract&#8221; to us) a broadly religious intention, and in any case that of a sacred artist, Burri, in 1968, delegates to a young Roman critic, Marisa Volpi, the task of clarifying to what extent, at depths that go far beyond &#8220;style,&#8221; his art remains intimately connected to the Great Italian Tradition of the late Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, with a public ethical-religious vocation [16]. And again: what can be said of artists one or two generations younger, such as Pascali, Paolini, De Dominicis, and Cucchi, in whom the anxiety over American artistic hegemony is combined with a rejection of minimalism (which is to say, a contemporary declension of the fear or suspicion of images or aversion to them, understood as the object of a possible &#8220;iconolatry&#8221;) and an interest instead in images offered, in an ironic way but not only so, to &#8220;venerazione&#8221; (which is to say: iconoduly)?</p><p><strong>The Problem of the &#8220;Aura&#8221;</strong></p><p>The Benjaminian question of the &#8220;aura,&#8221; which is to say, of the &#8220;appearance of a distance, however near it may be,&#8221; comes into play here, as it seems. Translated into Italian in 1966, the essay The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility (1936) immediately sparked a lively discussion. Writers and intellectuals close to the literary neo-avant-garde, mostly aligned with Marxist positions and ready to accept perspectives of radical historicism, adhered to Benjamin&#8217;s positions. In Benjamin&#8217;s intentions, the essay has a conjunctural validity&#8212;his theses, in other words, hold with reference to the artistic and literary landscape of the Weimar Republic&#8212;; and it has traits that are prescriptive far more than descriptive&#8212;Benjamin intends, that is, to insert himself into a determined situation and &#8220;act&#8221; within it, accentuating context changes and conferring upon them a &#8220;revolutionary&#8221; political sense. Despite such conjuncturality of the Benjaminian theses, they were adopted in Italy well beyond their historical limit and affirmed, so to speak, as a matter of principle, almost as theses having universal validity&#8212;even today, I limit myself to noting it here en passant, Massimo Cacciari presents the essay, in its most recent Einaudi edition, under the banner of a &#8220;crisis&#8221; (of the artwork) to be pursued always and at every moment [17]. Beyond too specific considerations, for which this is not the place, it remains to be remembered that the Italian publication of The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility serves to complete, in the Marxist sphere, a path of critique and detachment from the idealistic aesthetics in vogue in the first half of the century, and therefore finds great and immediate favor, presenting itself almost as a compendium, of great liveliness and brilliance, of a discussion two decades long. Benjamin distinguishes in the essay, with reference to the individual artwork, between &#8220;exhibition value&#8221; and &#8220;cult value,&#8221; which is to say (I try to translate) between an aesthetic dimension and a theological (or rather liturgical) dimension. An artwork, he suggests, can be born from cult and for reasons of cult, thus becoming charged with profound devotional meanings; and subsequently decay into a mere artifact, being appreciated exclusively for reasons of technique and form. Such a process, he adds, to which we can certainly give the name of &#8220;secularization,&#8221; was completed in the West during the Renaissance, an era of which Benjamin&#8212;a student in this of Jacob Burckhardt&#8212;gives a reductively profane interpretation. Here we have arrived, then, at the central theme of this essay of mine: the problem of a defense of the &#8220;aura&#8221; from the Italian, Catholic-Latin, and Mediterranean side. We must consider the Italian context of the 1960s and 70s, characterized, in terms of aesthetics and the theory of the artwork, by a Marxist-historicist work agenda, in order to adequately situate the refractivity and resistance, from the figurative side, to dissolving the artwork into the &#8220;era,&#8221; understanding it as a mere conjunctural &#8220;reflection&#8221; and &#8220;mirroring,&#8221; to instead reaffirm&#8212;obviously in an experimental and problematic way, according to the statement by Giulio Paolini reproduced here in the epigraph&#8212;its &#8220;splendor&#8221;&#8212;and thus its &#8220;aura,&#8221; despite every type of historical or social change.</p><p>Put in other terms: we observe, at the foundation of the Italian modernist tradition, an anxiety that does not occur elsewhere, at least not with the same frequency and intensity, a sort of conflict between &#8220;time&#8221; and the &#8220;eternal,&#8221; to use traditional metaphysical categories, with images called to descend and &#8220;incarnate&#8221; themselves in history rather than to resolve themselves within it, almost as carriers of a dimension that several times&#8212;for example in Carla Lonzi&#8217;s book-interview, Autoritratto (1969)&#8212;is, for instance and with all the ambiguity of the case, called &#8220;grace&#8221; [18]. It is certainly not a matter, as historians, of &#8220;confessionalizing&#8221; the entire twentieth century, an undertaking that would prove entirely absurd as well as erroneous; but certainly of recognizing an auratic, numinous vocation, whereas elsewhere, outside of Italy, in the season of the monochrome for example, or even later, we find artworks that keep closer to social, pedagogical, or other issues. In this sense, we can certainly seek to confer &#8220;content&#8221; upon the category of &#8220;impurity,&#8221; of which I spoke previously as a distinctive trait of Italian art of the late twentieth century: and to consider it as a deposit of a figurative tradition, originally precisely religious, one might well say from the fourteenth century, in which the &#8220;sensible&#8221; still appears, not infrequently in its most succorable and gentle forms, sometimes in prophetic forms, even if (or precisely because) transfigured by the &#8220;supersensible.&#8221; For Tony Judt, the British historian and academic who, in Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945, studied European cultural history at the double transition of the beginning of the Cold War and the dissolution of the USSR, we often consider too unawares or distractedly the importance that the various religious legacies had at least throughout the first half of the century [19]. What emerges from the study of Italian art confirms this statement by Judt, extending its validity, in relation to the figurative arts, even for the decades of the second post-war period. I mentioned shortly above the Italian fortune of the Benjaminian essay on The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility, simultaneously recalling its adoption in the circle of the literary neo-avant-garde (Group &#8216;63 etc.) and of critical Marxism. One must then add that, despite the analogies that people have often tried to draw and the biographical contiguities between writers, intellectuals, and artists, a different attitude prevails in the figurative sphere, in some way more conservative; that precisely such an attitude reveals intentions of dissidence (with respect to the orientations of contemporary criticism, aligned, for ideological or market reasons, with the ideology of the tabula rasa); and that artistic images are not at the time affected, with few exceptions, by that process of &#8220;secularization&#8221; and desecration that instead invests the novel and especially poetry.</p><p><strong>An Anti-Futurist Modernism: Radicality and &#8220;Moderation&#8221;</strong></p><p>Let us take a step back. We shall find that such &#8220;asynchrony&#8221; between literary history and artistic history, with artists aligned on positions less destructive and radical than those of the literati, has its origins in the entre-deux-guerres period, and was recognized in time, in the immediate second post-war period, by historians and critics such as Roberto Longhi and Giovanni Contini [20]. It is precisely in the years following the First World War, indeed if not immediately before, that a critical orientation began to assert itself in Italy of which, to date, a history is lacking; a critical orientation yes favorable to the break with the historicist eclecticism of nineteenth-century tradition (which survives in the Academies of Fine Arts and meets with the favor of most Italian collectors), thus to be numbered within the broader scope of international modernism, yet anti-Marinettian and hostile to the avant-garde, that is, to radical ruptures. A critical orientation, again, that we can certainly file under the heading of &#8220;moderation,&#8221; provided one admits that such moderation has nothing to do with political moderatism. I shall explain.</p><p>In Turin, around Gobetti and a classicizing painter like Casorati, a critical and taste orientation was created that rewards, with the choice of a new compositional rigor, the revisiting of Renaissance and Mannerist models, with a view to a post-Futurist and anti-Futurist order and compositional equilibrium. In Rome, the already mentioned experience of Valori plastici was initiated, sustained by the intention&#8212;of de Chirico, Carr&#224;, etc.&#8212;of a progressive adaptation of &#8220;metaphysical&#8221; harshness to the &#8220;naturalistic&#8221; tradition of the Early Renaissance, which was more widely accessible. In Bologna, a magazine such as La Raccolta invited artists and writers to collaborate who raised the problem of overcoming the pre-war avant-garde season&#8212;Raffaello Franchi played a leading role here, a singular figure of a critic destined to fade away during the 1930s, but not before having contributed to magazines such as Gobetti&#8217;s Rivoluzione liberale and Solaria, having tried to decline the Novecento in Florence in his own way, and having performed an important role as a trait-d&#8217;union between Gobettian Turin and Solarian Florence. In Florence, the Futurist experiments of Lacerba were rejected by those, Soffici foremost, who had been their protagonists: and in Soffici particularly, the experience of the war&#8212;the &#8220;trench solidarity&#8221;&#8212;was reflected in the choice of a more accessible and popular style.</p><p>Safeguarding the pre-eminent importance of the political Gobetti, the attention paid until now to the literary-critic Gobetti has been superior to that reserved instead for the art critic. The circumstance is understandable, considering the small number of specific figurative interventions by Gobetti himself on the pages of, let us say, Rivoluzione liberale. Nevertheless, it entails a partial removal of everything that is art criticism in La Rivoluzione liberale or in Il Baretti. It is true: even expanding our census to Gobetti&#8217;s collaborators, articles on specifically figurative themes are rare. Yet not so rare, especially if we consider how much figurative criticism is mixed with political or cultural editorials; nor, in any way, episodic. Illuminismo, the editorial with which Gobetti, in December 1924, in the first issue of Il Baretti, fixed the politico-cultural directions of the magazine, could not be more explicit regarding either the interest in the figurative arts or the suggestion imparted to the qualified editorial team [21]. Anti-Futurism (at a date when the relations between Marinetti and Mussolini had become quite clear), anti-avant-gardism, anti-experimentalism, anti-elitism in a decadent and art-pour-l&#8217;art key. Gobetti took a position not only against the pre-war Italian avant-garde, but also against everything that, in the war years or the immediate post-war period, still bore traces of research too distant from common visual sense, inclined toward &#8220;metaphysics&#8221; or archaism. &#8220;Against the emphasis of programs hidden in reasoned justifications, the instinct of painting and tradition reacts in Casorati&#8221;: thus Gobetti in the essay Felice Casorati pittore [22]. In Gobetti&#8217;s political writings, we find both the admission that, in compliance with the Crocean theory of the &#8220;distincts,&#8221; one can be &#8220;creatively liberal in politics&#8221; and &#8220;conservative&#8221; in art [23]; and the praise of a &#8220;Latinity&#8221; that draws ever new resources from the &#8220;love for order and clarity&#8221; [24]. All this, which can indeed refer to a critical agenda centered on the criterion of measure or &#8220;moderation,&#8221; does not coincide at all with &#8220;moderatism&#8221; in the political sense: the tenacious opposition to the regime by Gobetti, destined to lose his life shortly thereafter as a consequence of a squadrist assault, proves it sufficiently. The adjective &#8220;moderate,&#8221; which Gobetti uses precisely for Casorati, stands here tout court for &#8220;na&#239;ve&#8221;: which means &#8220;virgin,&#8221; yearning &#8220;for the secret resources hidden in the irrational,&#8221; not led astray by &#8220;theories&#8221; or reasoning &#8220;dryness&#8221; [25]. It is also a matter, for Gobetti the art critic, of counterposing &#8220;dignity&#8221; (of artistic or literary exercise) to the &#8220;genius&#8221; of the individual artist-vates and artist-histrion, of rejecting individualistic &#8220;leaps forward,&#8221; magniloquence, and superhuman emphasis in order to bring the creative process back to its social utility and even to certain public responsibilities&#8212;of ideological simplification and clarification, for example, or of the link between Ancient and Modern in the context of a shared &#8220;tradition&#8221;&#8212;; finally, of drawing attention to the importance of the widespread cultural fabric, in art as in literature or elsewhere, and that is to say, of the public of enthusiasts and connoisseurs, whose expectations are to be protected against the exploits of the &#8220;rebel genius&#8221; or isolated, clamorous circles of aesthetes and (so to speak) spoilers. This same Gobettian position, which we can certainly define as &#8220;Enlightenment&#8221; provided we clarify that one speaks here of an &#8220;Enlightenment&#8221; tempered by a sense of history, was immediately shared by front-rank Barettians such as Umberto Morra di Lavriano, who also contributed to the magazine regarding figurative arts, or Natalino Sapegno; and it then proved decisive for Edoardo Persico, among the best art and architecture critics in Italy at the turn of the 1920s and 30s, who found his debut in Il Baretti [26]. It is worth noting, as proof of the common Gobettian legacy, that both Morra and Persico, anti-Fascist Catholics, and Sapegno, a layman, committed themselves, in the course of careers inevitably destined to survive Gobetti, to preserving what they considered best and most worthy in the Italian tradition. Morra in particular linked himself to Bernard Berenson starting from the second half of the 1920s. In the famous American art critic and connoisseur residing in Florence, to whom Morra was introduced by Gaetano Salvemini, he found many artistic, literary, and political convictions common to both himself and Gobetti.</p><p>Morra&#8217;s Colloqui con Berenson, appearing in 1963, are an inestimable document of a way of looking at art, both contemporary art and museum art, in close connection with everything that models and gives life to a society, from politics to school, to information, to religion [27]. Here, in the Colloqui indeed, published when Berenson was already dead in order to pass on his testimony through lively snatches of conversation, one keeps away from the excesses of fashion and likewise from the inert conservation of past techniques and styles: interest in the figurative arts goes hand in hand with the defense of democratic-liberal institutions and reflection on what, in every era, makes us more upright, perceptive, and ultimately human. Berenson or Morra were not isolated at the time, nor was Berenson known exclusively, until his death, for his qualities as a connoisseur of paintings. The memory of the vast consensus that Berenson&#8217;s theses on Picasso, the Surrealists, or otherwise&#8212;and conversely his defense of a &#8220;humanistic&#8221; art, firmly grounded in the Italian fourteenth-fifteenth-century tradition&#8212;found in Italy until the early 1960s has perhaps been lost, orienting (directly or indirectly) writers and critics of settings as diverse from one another as Mario Praz, Moravia, Carlo Levi, Pasolini, Zolla, or Ernesto de Martino. Nevertheless: such consensus exists, it does not rest upon merely regressive convictions or arguments, and it deserves today, in a moment of general revision of what we appreciate as &#8220;contemporary art,&#8221; to be considered without prejudices of any kind, avant-gardist or otherwise. It carries with it, moreover, ethical-political and religious motivations: Moravia and Levi, Pasolini and de Martino are indeed united by the claim of belonging to a very precise cultural tradition, Euro-Mediterranean; and by the rejection of liberalist-liberal societies of the Anglo-American type. The defense of &#8220;humanistic&#8221; art (or of the figurative tradition, contested by the abstractionists) is here part of a broader (in many ways torn and ambiguous) &#8220;identitarian&#8221; mobilization. Let us return to Berenson, and move backward in time: we find that the American critic was an inescapable critical reference in Italy already in the first post-war period, within the scope of Valori plastici. It is to him, ultimately, as well as to Gobetti, that we owe, in our country, the maturation of critical orientations equally aware of aesthetic questions and questions lato sensu civil.</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wJpD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67695bd7-aa12-4c42-a940-e04942978e52_600x450.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wJpD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67695bd7-aa12-4c42-a940-e04942978e52_600x450.jpeg 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>[1] Regarding Renzo De Felice (and his school) in relation to art history, cf. Michele Dantini, &#8220;Religioni politiche. La storia dell&#8217;arte alla prova degli studi su fascismo, antifascismo e Resistenza,&#8221; in Il Capitale culturale, 18, 2018, online @ <a href="https://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/article/view/1942">https://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/article/view/1942</a>; for Zapponi, cf. Paolo Acanfora and Giovanni Maria Ceci, eds., Niccol&#242; Zapponi, uno storico nella Babele della modernit&#224;, monographic issue of Mondo contemporaneo, 3, 2017, Franco Angeli, Milan 2018; and Michele Dantini, Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile, il Mulino, Bologna 2022, pp. 246-251 (with specific reference to art-historical historiography).</p><p>[2] The reference here is to the title of the celebrated book by Ruggero Zangrandi, Il lungo viaggio attraverso il fascismo, Einaudi, Turin 1948.</p><p>[3] Massimo Firpo, Gli affreschi di Pontormo a San Lorenzo. Eresia, politica e cultura nella Firenze di Cosimo I, Einaudi, Turin 1997; ID., Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici. Il mondo di Lorenzo Lotto tra Riforma e Controriforma, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2001; Massimo Firpo and Fabrizio Biferali, Immagini ed eresie nell&#8217;Italia del Cinquecento, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2016; Carlo Ginzburg, Indagini su Piero, Einaudi, Turin 2001 (1994); Ottavia Niccoli, Vedere con gli occhi del cuore, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2011; Adriano Prosperi, Eresie, Quodlibet, Macerata 2021 (2010).</p><p>[4] I limit myself to noting&#8212;given the impossibility of compiling a complete bibliography here&#8212;the significant volume edited by Giuseppe Antonio Guazzelli, Raimondo Michetti, and Francesco Scorza Barcellona, Cesare Baronio tra santit&#224; e scrittura storica, Viella, Rome 2012; and, on the theme of image theory, the recent collection of essays edited by Wietse de Boer, Karl A. E. Enenkel, and Walter S. Melion, Jesuit Image Theory, Brill, Leiden-Boston 2016. For the use of images within the Philippian/Oratorian tradition, cf. various authors, La regola e la fama. San Filippo Neri e l&#8217;arte, Mondadori Electa, Milan 1995. Finally, again on the theme of Catholic Reformation art: Susan Merriam, Seventeenth-Century Flemish Garland Paintings: Still Life, Vision, and the Devotional Image, Ashgate, London 2016.</p><p>[5] Suzanne Penn reflects on the manner in which the evocation of themes drawn from religious iconography periodically characterizes the work of Pistoletto in &#8220;La complicit&#224; dei materiali&#8221; within Pistoletto&#8217;s paintings and Quadri specchianti, in: Michelangelo Pistoletto. From One to Many, 1956-1974, exh. cat., edited by Carlos Basualdo, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Nov. 2, 2010 &#8211; Jan. 16, 2011; MAXXI, Rome, Mar. 4, 2011 &#8211; Aug. 15, 2011, Electa, Milan 2011, p. 179. For Pascali and the Mediterranean myth, cf. instead Val&#233;rie Da Costa, Pino Pascali: retour &#224; la M&#233;diterran&#233;e, Les presses du r&#233;el, Dijon 2015.</p><p>[6] I derive the term &#8220;impurity&#8221; from Richard Flood and Frances Morris, &#8220;Introduction: Zero to Infinity,&#8221; in Richard Flood and Frances Morris, eds., Zero to Infinity: Arte Povera 1962-1972, exh. cat., Tate Modern, London, May 31 &#8211; Aug. 19, 2001; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Oct. 13, 2001 &#8211; Jan. 13, 2002; The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Mar. 10 &#8211; Aug. 11, 2002; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C., Oct. 17, 2002 &#8211; Jan. 12, 2003, p. 16 et seq.; ibid., Corinna Criticos, &#8220;Reading Arte Povera,&#8221; p. 75 et seq.</p><p>[7] For the &#8220;iconoclasm&#8221; of the Anglo-American tradition, including recent developments, cf. James Simpson, Under the Hammer: Iconoclasm in the Anglo-American Tradition, Oxford University, Oxford 2010, pp. 11-12. On this theme, see infra, note 10.</p><p>[8] Salvatore Settis, &#8220;Continuit&#224;, distanza, conoscenza. Tre usi dell&#8217;antico,&#8221; in: ID., ed., Memoria dell&#8217;antico nell&#8217;arte italiana, III, Dalla tradizione all&#8217;archeologia, Einaudi, Turin 1986, pp. 375-486; and Michele Dantini, &#8220;Arte italiana postbellica: metodi e prospettive,&#8221; in Lara Conte and Michele Dantini, eds., Arte italiana postbellica, &#8220;Predella,&#8221; monographic issue, 11, 2017, ETS, Pisa 2017, pp. 11-35, online @ <a href="http://www.predella.it/index.php/component/content/article/53-issue-no-37/335-37-mono-arte-italiana-postbellica-prospettive-e-metodi.html">http://www.predella.it/index.php/component/content/article/53-issue-no-37/335-37-mono-arte-italiana-postbellica-prospettive-e-metodi.html</a>.</p><p>[9] Carlo Levi, L&#8217;arte e gli italiani (1955), now in: ID., Il coraggio dei miti, edited by Gigliola De Donato, De Donato, Bari 1975, pp. 77-78.</p><p>[10] For an introduction to the theme, cf. David Freedberg, &#8220;Art and Iconoclasm, 1525-1580: The Case of the Northern Netherlands&#8221; (1986), now in: ID., Iconoclasm, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago-London 2021, pp. 51-94 (this collection of essays, which extends to the present day, is useful for stimulating diachronic and transcultural research on the problem of &#8220;iconoclasm,&#8221; which does not hesitate to consider even twentieth-century circumstances according to perspectives of theological and religious history and with categories drawn from the dogmatics relative to cult images); and Koenraad Jonckheere, Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566-1585, Mercatorfonds, Antwerp 2013.</p><p>[11] Paola Barocchi, &#8220;Prefazione,&#8221; in Barbara Agosti, Collezionismo e archeologia cristiana nel Seicento, Jaca Book, Milan 1996, p. 7.</p><p>[12] Cf. Paola Barocchi, Storia moderna dell&#8217;arte in Italia. Manifesti, polemiche, documenti, 3 vols., III*, Dal Novecento ai dibattiti sulla figura e sul monumentale 1925-1945, Einaudi, Turin 1997; and III**, Tra neorealismo ed anni Novanta 1945-1990, Einaudi, Turin 1992.</p><p>[13] For the notion of &#8220;Catholic Reformation,&#8221; the text by Hans Jedin is fundamental: Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation?, Brescia 1959 (1947).</p><p>[14] Paolo Prodi, Il Cardinale Gabriele Paleotti (1522-1597), il Mulino, Bologna 2022 (1959); and ID., &#8220;Ricerche sulla teorica delle arti figurative nella Riforma cattolica,&#8221; in Archivio di storia della piet&#224;, IV, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Rome 1962, pp. 123-212 (now in Arte e piet&#224; nella Chiesa tridentina, il Mulino, Bologna 2014, pp. 153-190).</p><p>[15] As a counterpart to Prodi&#8217;s critiques of the historical-theological inadequacy of art historians, one may place Giovanni Pozzi, Sull&#8217;orlo di un visibile parlare, Adelphi, Milan 1993, particularly pp. 18-72.</p><p>[16] Marisa Volpi, &#8220;Alberto Burri,&#8221; in Carla Lonzi, Tommaso Trini, Marisa Volpi Orlandini, eds., &#8220;Tecniche e materiali,&#8221; in marcatr&#233;, 37-40, May 1968, pp. 66-85.</p><p>[17] Massimo Cacciari, &#8220;Il produttore malinconico,&#8221; in Walter Benjamin, L&#8217;opera d&#8217;arte nell&#8217;epoca della sua riproducibilit&#224; tecnica, Einaudi, Turin 2014, pp. v-xlvi.</p><p>[18] Carla Lonzi, Autoritratto, et al., Milan 2010 (1969), pp. 288-289 and passim.</p><p>[19] Tony Judt, Postwar Europe 1945-2005, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2017, pp. 325 and passim.</p><p>[20] Michele Dantini, &#8220;Ecfrasi da punti di vista critico-culturali. Roberto Longhi e le &#8216;Proposte per una critica d&#8217;arte&#8217; (1950),&#8221; in: ID., Arte e sfera pubblica, Donzelli, Rome 2016, pp. 121-122 and note 164, pp. 327-328.</p><p>[21] Piero Gobetti, &#8220;Illuminismo,&#8221; in Il Baretti, I, 1-23, December 1924, p. 1.</p><p>[22] ID., Felice Casorati pittore, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Rome 2018 (1923), p. 86.</p><p>[23] ID., Opera critica, I, Arte - Religione - Filosofia, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Rome 2013, p. 163.</p><p>[24] IBID., p. 176.</p><p>[25] Piero Gobetti, Felice Casorati pittore, cit., pp. 87-89.</p><p>[26] An &#8220;ideological&#8221; profile of Edoardo Persico in Michele Dantini, &#8220;&#8216;Precisione di un&#8217;ideologia,&#8217; Edoardo Persico tra Venti e Trenta: arte, critica, architettura,&#8221; in: ID., Arte e politica in Italia tra fascismo e Repubblica, Donzelli, Rome 2018, pp. 9-58.</p><p>[27] Umberto Morra di Lavriano, Colloqui con Bernard Berenson, Garzanti, Milan 1963.</p><div><hr></div><p>FOR FURTHER READINGS:</p><p style="text-align: justify;">David Armitage, Jo Guldi, <em>Manifesto per la storia</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2016</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Elisa Bassetto, a cura di, <em>Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile. Intervista a Michele Dantini</em>, in: <em>&#171;Finestre sull&#8217;arte&#187;</em>, 12.8.2022, online @ <a href="https://www.finestresullarte.info/interviste/contro-i-miti-storiografici-intervista-michele-dantini-storia-dell-arte-e-storia-civile">https://www.finestresullarte.info/interviste/contro-i-miti-storiografici-intervista-michele-dantini-storia-dell-arte-e-storia-civile</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Fabio Benzi, <em>Arte in Italia tra le due guerre</em>, Bollati Boringhieri, Torino 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, <em>Arte e politica in Italia tra fascismo e Repubblica</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2018</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, <em>Storia dell&#8217;arte e storia civile. Il Novecento</em>, il Mulino, Bologna 2022, <a href="https://www.mulino.it/isbn/9788815295897#">qui</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Michele Dantini, Bernard Berenson e l&#8217;arte contemporanea, Elcta, Milano 2025, <a href="https://www.electa.it/prodotto/bernard-berenson-e-larte-contemporanea/">qui</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Renzo De Felice, a cura di, <em>Futurismo, cultura e politica</em>, Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli, Torino 1988</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ernesto de Martino <em>La fine del mondo, Contributo all&#8217;analisi delle apocalissi culturali</em>, Einaudi, Torino 2019</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Carlo Dionisotti, <em>Chierici e laici</em>, Interlinea, Novara 1995 (1960)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Flavio Fergonzi, <em>Filologia del Novecento</em>, Electa, Milano 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">David Freedberg, <em>Art and Iconoclasm, 1525-1580: The Case of the Northern Netherlands</em> (1986), oggi in: ID., Iconoclasm, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago|Londra 2021</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Emilio Gentile, <em>L&#8217;Italia tra le arti e le scienze di Mario Sironi. Miti grandiosi e giganteschi rivolgimenti</em>, Laterza, Roma-Bari 2014</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Piero Gobetti, <em>Felice Casorati pittore</em>, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 2018 (1923)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Piero Gobetti, <em>Opera critica</em>, i, <em>Arte - Religione - Filosofia</em>, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Koenraad Jonckheere, <em>Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566-1585</em>, Mercatorfonds, Anversa 2013</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Carlo Levi, <em>L&#8217;arte e gli italiani</em> (1955), oggi in: ID., <em>Il coraggio dei miti</em>, a cura di Gigliola De Donato, De Donato, Bari 1975</p><p>Luisa Mangoni, <em>L&#8217;interventismo della cultura: Intellettuali e riviste del fascismo</em>, Laterza, Bari|Roma 1974</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Umberto Morra, <em>Colloqui con Berenson</em>, Garzanti, Milano 1953</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Umberto Morra, <em>Gobetti</em>, UTET, Torino 1984</p><p>Francesco Perfetti, <em>Futurismo e politica</em>, Le Lettere, Firenze 2009</p><p>Roberto Pertici, Un liberale del nostro tempo: Umberto Morra di Lavriano, in: Umberto Morra di Lavriano e l&#8217;opposizione etica al fascismo, Edizioni della Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa 1985, pp. 51-145</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Niccol&#242; Zapponi, <em>I miti e le ideologie</em>, ESI, Napoli 1981</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZnCY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6102cc9-e06b-4d4c-9bd4-224906adc4c8_834x1260.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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Consider upgrading your membership to enjoy the full breadth of our archival and contemporary offerings.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Upgrade Now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe"><span>Upgrade Now</span></a></p><p>To extend this conversation to others, you may gift a subscription <a href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?gift=true&amp;utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email">here</a>.</p><p>If you wish to share this content, please use the button below.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/carla-lonzi-scrittrice?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/carla-lonzi-scrittrice?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Rosa Tiepolo]]></title><description><![CDATA[Dico la mia, qui, su Roberto Calasso &#8220;storico dell&#8217;arte&#8221;, abbozzando la scheda di un libro che ha per tema Giambattista Tiepolo. La dico in forma di dialogo tra due storici dell&#8217;arte]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rosa-tiepolo</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rosa-tiepolo</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 26 Mar 2026 16:31:36 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png" width="1456" height="855" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:855,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:7382825,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/i/192216252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OwgW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc80ef95f-7d79-484c-9741-de23101aac69_2686x1578.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Dico la mia, qui, su <strong>Roberto Calasso</strong> &#8220;storico dell&#8217;arte&#8221;, abbozzando la scheda di un libro che ha per tema un artista immenso, di elezione: Giambattista Tiepolo. La dico in forma di dialogo tra due storici dell&#8217;arte, A) e B). E dunque:</p><p>Roberto Calasso, <em>Il rosa Tiepolo</em>, Adelphi, 2006</p><p><em>A)</em>: L&#8217;ironia &#232; facile, e qui non costa niente. <em>Il rosa Tiepolo</em> &#232; il libro di un &#8220;dilettante&#8221;, punteggiato di iperboli e &#8220;folgorazioni&#8221; che meriterebbero d&#8217;essere riportate alla loro giusta proporzione e inserite in sequenze storiche con un &#8220;prima&#8221; e un &#8220;poi&#8221; chiaramente stabilito, e una metrica appropriata. Nessun artista, figuriamoci, ha i titoli per esser considerato un &#8220;individuo cosmico-storico&#8221; o caricato di responsabilit&#224; evenemenziali, come Calasso pretende per Tiepolo, al modo sempre un po&#8217; infantile e libresco dei filosofi o degli storici delle idee che si occupano di arti figurative. In una chiave Prevedibilmente eroica che appare gonfia e sforzata a chi sa bene che l&#8217;arte, sia pure per il genio pi&#249; inarrivabile, &#232; in larga parte apprendimento e routine.</p><p><em>B)</em>: Come negare? Di pi&#249;: che senso ha, se non autoparodistico, fare di Tiepolo, contro ogni evidenza o plausibilit&#224; storica, l&#8217;emissario occidentale della sapienza &#171;vedantica&#187;, dibattere se sia il primo dei Moderni o l&#8217;ultimo degli Antichi, mostrarlo nella luce di Baudelaire e della sua teoria della &#8220;d&#233;cadence&#8221;, ritrarlo quasi nei panni di <strong>un James Hillman settecentesco</strong>, un sapiente orientale (un Caldeo, perch&#233; no?) nato per coincidenza a Venezia, e infine concludere, in chiave bio- e psicografica, per l&#8217;irriducibile unicit&#224; delle ultime piccole tele madrilene, sacrificando ancora al gusto teatrale dell&#8217;arte come mistero ultimo e rintocco fatale?</p><p><em>A)</em>: Tutto vero. <em>Il rosa Tiepolo</em> &#232; un libro autoindulgente, un pastiche, che intreccia misteriosofia e filologia, idiosincrasia e critica istituzionale; che deriva non poche domande e angoli di osservazione dal <em>Tiepolo</em> di <strong>Michael Baxandall </strong>(molto) e Svetlana Alpers (poco), che non regge a un&#8217;analisi scientifica e cade (o talvolta precipita) nel &#8220;belle-lettrisme&#8221;.</p><p><em>B)</em>: Trovo per&#242; che esistano due buoni motivi per addentrarsi in questa &#8220;monografia&#8221; eterodossa, per chi non voglia limitarsi all&#8217;alterigia. Le pagine introduttive, che hanno avuto per suggeritore <strong>Cesare Garboli</strong>, sviluppano una polemica inattesa, sgombra da qualsiasi prudenza cerimoniale: sono da conoscere. E infine (e soprattutto) <strong>il tributo alla Vera Grandezza che Calasso rende qui a Tiepolo</strong>, nello sforzo di ripristinare connessioni, riannodare i fili etc. E&#8217; un tributo sincero, che trascende l&#8217;errore, per cui, personalmente, mi dichiaro grato.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>A)</em>: Concordo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E3TE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3004efd2-3d0e-430c-a127-403837563042_572x888.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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Considera allora la possibilit&#224; di fare upgrade per avere un&#8217;esperienza pi&#249; completa del blog.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Fai upgrade&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe"><span>Fai upgrade</span></a></p><p>Per regalare il blog invece clicca <a href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?gift=true&amp;utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email">qui</a>!</p><p>Se desideri condividere questo contenuto, clicca il pulsante qui sotto.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rosa-tiepolo?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Condividi&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rosa-tiepolo?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Condividi</span></a></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Rileggere oggi "La banalità del Male di Hannah Arendt / 🇮🇹 🇬🇧]]></title><description><![CDATA[La condanna d Eichmann, burocrate nazista catturato dal Mossad a Buenos Aires e processato a Gerusalemme nel 1961, spinge Arendt a formulare la celebre tesi. Che oggi per&#242; non appare cos&#236; convincente]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rileggere-oggi-la-banalita-del-male</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/rileggere-oggi-la-banalita-del-male</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 10 Mar 2026 06:27:32 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg" 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data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:550,&quot;width&quot;:1100,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:77251,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/i/190405738?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QUZZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fff5f077d-2713-426c-b0eb-f160a32768df_1100x550.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; <em>English Version below</em></p><div><hr></div><p>A dispetto della tesi, issata a titolo, <em>La banalit&#224; del Male</em> non &#232; un libro semplice n&#233; aproblematico. Non lo &#232; perch&#233; &#8220;banale&#8221; non vuol dire qui ovvio, inerziale, residuo o facilmente risolvibile. Al contrario. Il Male &#232; <em>banale</em>, per Arendt, perch&#233; non trova niente a intralciarlo sulla sua strada. <em>Il Male &#232; banale in un mondo in mondo in cui esso &#232; pressoch&#233; onnipotente</em>. Questo il senso del ragionamento di Arendt: per cui &#8220;banale&#8221; equivale a tragico o irreparabile.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In assenza di una sanzione giuridica, l&#8217;&#8221;umanit&#224; rispettabile&#8221;, come Arendt chiama i ceti medi professionali, l&#8217;opinione pubblica liberale, la <em>borghesia</em> intesa come &#8220;classe universale&#8221;, compie il Male. Questo &#232;. Non esiste alcunch&#233; che lo impedisca, nessun astratto codice o principio morale, nessun &#8220;fondamento&#8221; ontologico-pratico dell&#8217;autonomia: non la &#8220;voce della coscienza&#8221;, non il buon senso, non l&#8217;&#8221;umanit&#224; generale&#8221; n&#233; una qualche &#8220;ragion pratica&#8221;. Eichmann &#232; l&#236; a dimostrare, per Arendt, che, qualora la legge proclami legittimo il Male, l&#8217;umanit&#224; &#8220;media&#8221; lo compie senza troppa esitazione n&#233; rimorso. In breve: non esiste una &#8220;morale naturale&#8221;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La complessit&#224; del saggio di Arendt &#232; qui. Mentre l&#8217;autrice accumula esempi su esempi di come Eichmann abbia <em>banalmente</em> adempiuto a incarichi in linea con il suo ruolo, sia cio&#232; stato un mero esecutore di ordini altrui - circostanza che avrebbe dovuto renderlo non imputabile, non esistendo norma che pu&#242; imporre a un cittadino di uno stato sovrano di disobbedire alle leggi che questo Stato si &#232; dato, ivi inclusa la deportazione e lo sterminio di un altro popolo -, ebbene, &#232; questa stessa <em>banalit&#224;</em> a fare problema sotto profili etico-politici e addirittura metafisici.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Agli avversari di Destra e di Sinistra della societ&#224; liberale Arendt non obietta nulla, in linea di principio: non ai teorici dello &#8220;spirito oggettivo&#8221; o del &#8220;socialismo prussiano&#8221;, non a Schmitt, a Heidegger (vedremo poi con quali differenze) n&#233; a tutti coloro, in definitiva, per cui il diritto naturale &#232; una pallida astrazione, nient&#8217;altro che <em>flatus vocis</em> - perch&#233; il diritto &#232; sempre dato, <em>gettato</em> entro una costellazione storica e sociale che precede l&#8217;individuo, lo trascende e lo obbliga. Ma non obietta nulla neppure ai marxisti, che intendono il diritto come portato della violenza - in modo uguale e contrario ai fiancheggiatori dei regimi autoritari. Sono le leggi, cos&#236; Arendt, che fanno gli uomini &#8220;buoni&#8221;; non una qualsiasi &#8220;voce della coscienza&#8221;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Prima di essere un saggio contro Eichmann e il Terzo Reich, cosa che ovviamente &#232;, <em>La banalit&#224; del Male</em> svolge una riflessione in principio anti-illuminista, anti-umanistica, anti-kantiana. E&#8217; sotto questo profilo che la tesi della &#8220;banalit&#224; del Male&#8221; si rivela <em>abissale</em>. Arendt rimanda qui, in avvio di ragionamento, a Dostoevskij e Heidegger, suoi veri mentori - da cui per&#242; si discosta radicalmente nelle conclusioni. Il Male domina - questo significa in concreto <em>banalit&#224;</em> - perch&#233; il Bene, o l&#8217;Essere, o Dio, <em>si &#232; ritirato dal Mondo per lasciare a noi la scelta</em>, cio&#232; la libert&#224;. Si &#232; fatto scarso, nascosto, vulnerabile.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Da un simile assunto non consegue per Arendt, come consegue invece nelle tradizioni ascetiche, o appunto in Dostoevskij e Heidegger, un approfondimento dei modi individuali di conseguimento della Grazia (modo della &#8220;trascendenza&#8221;, se stiamo al lessico di <em>Essere e tempo</em>; o dell&#8217;Esserci). Al contrario: tutto prende a ruotare attorno al diritto e allo Stato, nella convinzione, gi&#224; accennata, che siano le leggi a fare &#8220;buoni&#8221; gli uomini, non altro. Ci&#242; che &#232; individuale e autonomo cede a ci&#242; che &#232; impersonale e eteronomo. Giurisprudenza e sociologia prendono il posto dell&#8217;arte, della religione, della metafisica.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La ricostruzione arendtiana della Shoah &#232; macchiata, a mio avviso, da una duplice amnesia. Se non lo fosse, la tesi circa la &#8220;banalit&#224; del Male&#8221; in Eichmann ne sarebbe uscita fortemente circoscritta, o addirittura invalidata. In primo luogo: appare del tutto sottostimata l&#8217;azione di contrasto delle Chiese cristiane contro i pogrom e la deportazione degli ebrei. Qualcosa come un apriori ideologico sembra distogliere Arendt dall&#8217;approfondire i rapporti esistenti tra fermezza e <em>pietas</em> - rapporti che, nell&#8217;ambito di un ragionamento primariamente giuridico sull&#8217;origine della morale, acquistano rilievo controfattuale -; e dal rendere onore a chi, dentro o fuori di campi di concentramento, insorge contro la violenza sino a subire martirio. Occorre dirlo: a costui il Male non sembra mai <em>banale</em>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In secondo luogo: appare sottostimata la brutale efficienza dell&#8217;apparato coercitivo NSDAP, che giunge anche laddove il consenso non arriva. Lungi dall&#8217;esemplificare qualcosa come un&#8217;umanit&#224; &#8220;naturale&#8221;, astorica e &#8220;senza tempo&#8221;, come Arendt sembra a tratti presupporre, Eichmann, che pure prova orrore per la soluzione delle camere a gas quando questa gli viene mostrata una prima volta, salvo poi rifugiarsi acquiescente nella soluzione di problemi &#8220;logistici&#8221; e &#8220;infrastrutturali&#8221;, appare invece il precipitato <em>storico</em> precipuo di un fallimentare processo di &#8220;secolarizzazione&#8221;: sin dai tempi del <em>Kulturkampf</em> bismarckiano, le elite politiche, in Germania, si sono proposte di &#8220;statalizzare&#8221; la dimensione metafisico-religiosa innalzando la &#8220;nazione politica&#8221; al rango di Incondizionato. Viene da chiedersi, da punti di vista liberali, se Arendt non attribuisca troppa importanza al solo diritto, sino a farne lo scudo contro una natura umana altrimenti <em>deietta</em>; e ignori invece illegittimamente, oltrech&#233; la &#8220;legge morale in noi&#8221;, tutto ci&#242; che la nutra o la insedi, anche (o soprattutto) al di fuori dello Stato. Arendt arruola uno statalismo di tradizione giacobina per schierarlo in battaglia contro lo statalismo autoritario prussiano: pur sempre di statalismo si tratta, vale a dire di un&#8217;ideologia che si propone, per via pedagogica, disciplinare o altro, di limitare e &#8220;correggere&#8221; la libert&#224; individuale.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Concludo con un paradosso metafisico-teologico. Mi chiedo se Arendt abbia mai soppesato il rischio teorico cui va incontro il postulato della &#8220;banalit&#224; del Male&#8221;, che attenua o rimuove il principio della responsabilit&#224; individuale. Se &#232; vero, come &#232; vero per Arendt, che la biografia di un uomo vile, mendace, sciocco, confuso e pedante come Eichmann, feroce antisemita, porta con s&#233; una <em>rivelazione</em>, giunge cio&#232; a farsi profetica - <em>perch&#233; il Male &#232; semplice e &#8220;banale&#8221; per tutti, ed &#232; sufficiente ubbidire </em>-, ecco che Eichmann stesso stesso viene a sovrapporsi, circonfuso di gloria, al Giuda di taluni gnostici: l&#8217;uomo pio e devoto pi&#249; di ogni altro, che sacrifica s&#233; stesso, sfidando l&#8217;eterno disprezzo, perch&#233; il calice sia versato e ci&#242; che doveva accadere accada.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZmZA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d8d1c82-b24c-4410-93c9-4cd8c51318d9_874x1200.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div 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stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Grazie per aver letto <em>The Bibliophile</em>, la sezione del blog dedicata alla riconsiderazione di classici, anteprime, reprints e <em>rariora</em>. Iscriviti per ricevere i prossimi articoli e supportare il mio lavoro.</p><p>Sei gi&#224; iscritto? Considera allora la possibilit&#224; di fare upgrade per avere un&#8217;esperienza pi&#249; completa del blog.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Fai upgrade&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe"><span>Fai upgrade</span></a></p><p>Per regalare il blog invece clicca <a href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?gift=true&amp;utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email">qui</a>!</p><p>Se desideri condividere questo contenuto, clicca il pulsante qui sotto.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/per-uneuropa-post-liberale-manifesto?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODY5OTY5NzgsImlhdCI6MTc3MDY0NjI0OSwiZXhwIjoxNzczMjM4MjQ5LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.elvq36oh-_QBk37VBS0PKWrmYPBfrza2QDnu5Q3weTQ&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Condividi&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/per-uneuropa-post-liberale-manifesto?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODY5OTY5NzgsImlhdCI6MTc3MDY0NjI0OSwiZXhwIjoxNzczMjM4MjQ5LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.elvq36oh-_QBk37VBS0PKWrmYPBfrza2QDnu5Q3weTQ"><span>Condividi</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; <strong>Reconsidering Arendt&#8217;s &#8220;Banality&#8221;</strong></p><p>Despite the thesis hoisted into its very title, Eichmann in Jerusalem is neither a simple nor an unproblematic text. Its central difficulty lies in the fact that, for Hannah Arendt, &#8220;banality&#8221; does not denote the obvious, the inertial, or the easily remediable. On the contrary: Evil is banal because it encounters no friction. It is banal in a world where it has become effectively omnipotent. In Arendt&#8217;s calculus, &#8220;banal&#8221; is a synonym for the tragic and the irreparable.</p><p>In the absence of legal sanction, &#8220;respectable humanity&#8221;&#8212;the professional middle classes, liberal public opinion, the bourgeoisie as &#8220;universal class&#8221;&#8212;commits Evil. That is the sum of it. There is no countervailing force, no abstract eighteenth-century moral code, no bedrock of autonomy: neither the &#8220;voice of conscience,&#8221; nor common sense, nor &#8220;universal humanity,&#8221; nor any &#8220;practical reason.&#8221; For Arendt, Eichmann serves as the proof that when the law legitimizes Evil, &#8220;average&#8221; humanity carries it out with neither hesitation nor remorse. To put it briefly: there is no &#8220;natural morality.&#8221;</p><p>The complexity of Arendt&#8217;s essay resides entirely here. As she accumulates evidence of how Eichmann &#8220;banally&#8221; fulfilled his duties&#8212;acting as a mere functionary of others&#8217; wills, a circumstance that theoretically should have rendered him non-indictable, given that no norm exists to compel a citizen of a sovereign state to disobey its established laws (including the deportation and extermination of a people)&#8212;it is precisely this banality that poses a profound ethical, political, and even metaphysical problem.</p><p>Arendt offers no principled objection to the adversaries of liberal society, whether from the Right or the Left: not to the theorists of &#8220;objective spirit&#8221; or &#8220;Prussian socialism,&#8221; nor to Carl Schmitt or Martin Heidegger (though we shall see the distinctions therein). She finds common ground with all those for whom natural law is a pale abstraction, a mere flatus vocis&#8212;because law is always &#8220;given,&#8221; cast into a historical and social constellation that precedes, transcends, and binds the individual. Nor does she object to the Marxists, who view law as a byproduct of violence&#8212;a mirror image of the apologists for authoritarian regimes. It is the laws, Arendt suggests, that make men &#8220;good,&#8221; not some innate &#8220;voice of conscience.&#8221;</p><p>Before it is a polemic against Eichmann and the Third Reich&#8212;which it certainly is&#8212;The Banality of Evil functions as an essentially anti-Enlightenment, anti-humanist, and anti-Kantian meditation. It is in this light that the thesis reveals its abyssal nature. Arendt gestures toward Dostoevsky and Heidegger as her true mentors, though she departs radically from their conclusions. Evil dominates&#8212;this is the concrete meaning of banality&#8212;because the Good, or Being, or God, has retreated from the world to leave us with choice: that is, with freedom. The divine has rendered itself scarce, hidden, and vulnerable.</p><p>Yet, for Arendt, this premise does not lead to an inward pursuit of Grace (the mode of &#8220;transcendence&#8221; or Dasein, to use the lexicon of Being and Time), as it does in ascetic traditions or in Dostoevsky. On the contrary: everything pivots back toward Law and the State, fueled by the conviction that laws alone make men &#8220;good.&#8221; The individual and the autonomous yield to the impersonal and the heteronomous. Jurisprudence and sociology usurp the place of art, religion, and metaphysics.</p><p>Arendt&#8217;s reconstruction of the Shoah is marred, in my view, by a double amnesia. Had it been otherwise, her thesis regarding the &#8220;banality&#8221; of Eichmann&#8217;s evil would have been severely circumscribed, if not invalidated.</p><p>First, she drastically underestimates the resistance of the Christian churches against the pogroms and deportations. An ideological a priori seems to prevent Arendt from exploring the tension between fermitas and pietas&#8212;a relationship that, within a legalistic inquiry into the origins of morality, acquires counterfactual significance. She fails to honor those who, inside and outside the camps, rose against violence to the point of martyrdom. For such individuals, it must be said, Evil never appeared banal.</p><p>Second, she underestimates the brutal efficiency of the NSDAP&#8217;s coercive apparatus, which reached even where consensus failed. Far from embodying an &#8220;ahistorical&#8221; or &#8220;timeless&#8221; natural humanity, as Arendt occasionally implies, Eichmann&#8212;who initially felt horror at the gas chambers before retreating into the &#8220;acquiescent&#8221; resolution of logistical and infrastructural problems&#8212;appears instead as the specific historical precipitate of a failed secularization. Since Bismarck&#8217;s Kulturkampf, German political elites sought to &#8220;statistize&#8221; the metaphysical-religious dimension, elevating the &#8220;political nation&#8221; to the status of the Unconditioned. From a liberal perspective, one wonders if Arendt grants too much weight to Law alone as a shield against a degraded human nature, while illegitimately ignoring the &#8220;moral law within us&#8221; and all that nourishes it outside the machinery of the State.</p><p>Arendt enlists a Jacobin brand of statism to combat the authoritarian statism of the Prussian tradition; yet it remains statism&#8212;an ideology that seeks, through pedagogical or disciplinary means, to limit and &#8220;correct&#8221; individual freedom. I conclude with a metaphysical-theological paradox. I wonder if Arendt ever weighed the theoretical risk inherent in the &#8220;banality of evil,&#8221; which attenuates the principle of individual responsibility. If it is true, as Arendt suggests, that the biography of a man as craven, mendacious, and pedantic as Eichmann carries a revelation&#8212;that it becomes prophetic because Evil is &#8220;simple&#8221; and requires only obedience&#8212;then Eichmann begins to overlap, perversely haloed, with the Judas of certain Gnostic sects: the man more pious and devoted than all others, who sacrifices himself to eternal loathing so that the cup might be drained and that which was destined to happen might come to pass.</p><div><hr></div><p>Thank you for reading <em>The Bibliophile</em>, the blog section dedicated to reappraisals of the classics, previews, reprints, and <em>rariora</em>. 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Sulla delicatezza  / 🇮🇹 🇬🇧]]></title><description><![CDATA[Presento qui un mio saggio, apparso nel 2021 per il Mulino, per cui Eugenio Borgna aveva firmato l'introduzione; e che era stato tra noi motivo di confronto. Sabato 28 parliamo di Borgna a Testo.]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/sulla-delicatezza</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/sulla-delicatezza</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 27 Feb 2026 06:40:05 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EqFo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7598950-4224-48c0-bebc-6112f7e921dd_686x1030.png" width="686" height="1030" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#127468;&#127463; <em>English Version below</em></p><div><hr></div><p>Sabato 28 marzo, domani, prender&#242; parte a <a href="https://testo.pittimmagine.com/it/events-calendar?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=23530045584&amp;gbraid=0AAAABCzt1EYmZh4NMzmAj_OpPqyvaTPwp&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiA2PrMBhA4EiwAwpHyC-p6CUicNRkHn_V7kTVIgm4xN7QV_h5-P3ypIUpAdLeD6eUKpz-c_BoCfQgQAvD_BwE">Testo</a> per un incontro dedicato a Eugenio Borgna, psichiatra e saggista scomparso nel dicembre 2024 (vd. locandina pi&#249; in basso). Di Borgna oggi si pubblicano tre saggi in edizione inglese, uno con mia introduzione, <em>Wounded Nostalgia</em> (<a href="https://www.peterlang.com/document/1470280">Peter Lang</a>; ne ho dato notizia sul blog <a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-184558676">qui</a>).</p><p>Nel 2021 Borgna aveva scritto un&#8217;introduzione al mio saggio <em>Sulla delicatezza</em>, pubblicato per il Mulino. I nostri punti di vista era diversi, ma complementari. Pi&#249; metafisico il mio, perch&#233; ai miei occhi &#8220;delicatezza&#8221; era (&#232;) un predicato dell&#8217;essere, dunque una circostanza linguistico-metafisica; pi&#249; legato all&#8217;uomo e alla sofferenza quello di Borgna, per cui &#8220;delicata&#8221; &#232; la relazione medico/paziente, sempre sul punto di interrompersi e fallire.</p><p>Poich&#233;, nell&#8217;occasione di <em>Wounded Nostalgia</em>, la mia riflessione &#232; tornata a incrociarsi con quella di Borgna, do qui una breve sinossi di Sulla delicatezza, anche in ricordo del grande psichiatra e del suo dono (allora) inatteso.</p><p>                                                                       ***</p><p><em>Manifesto per una comunicazione non violenta</em>: questo il sottotitolo del saggio, che prende le mosse dal punto di vista di Socrate e dalla distinzione tra discorso filosofico, discorso politico e satira.</p><p>Per l&#8217;antico filosofo il discorso della verit&#224; non ha niente a che vedere con l&#8217;arringa del politico o la beffa del comico. Il politico persegue il consenso, il comico pure, anche se in modi specifici. L&#8217;uno e l&#8217;altro non si curano di ci&#242; che che &#232; vero, a differenza del filosofo. D&#8217;altra parte il filosofo sa che il linguaggio non &#232; un semplice utensile, e che distorsione e menzogna letteralmente possiedono colui che crede di disporne a proprio piacimento. La sua cautela, nel discernere e scegliere le parole, non &#232; quindi un atteggiamento astrattamente intellettualistico o morale. Nasce dal timore del fondamento oscuro sui cui poggiano le parole e tutta la nostra esistenza. Solo i discorsi veri &#8220;curano&#8221;: mantengono cio&#232; la mente in quell&#8217;equilibrio che la fa perspicace e sapiente. D&#8217;altra parte rimangono esposti alle ritorsioni della <em>polis</em>, che tende a rigettare ci&#242; che &#232; &#8220;vero&#8221; in nome di ci&#242; che pare utile o conveniente in un dato momento.</p><p>Dostoevskij &#232; la figura forse centrale del saggio, per il modo in cui, nell&#8217;Idiota, allestisce la competizione &#8220;metafisica&#8221; tra il principe My&#353;kin e i nihilisti. E&#8217; una competizione modellata dall&#8217;asimmetria, perch&#233; solo i nihilisti desiderano distruggere tutto ci&#242; in cui My&#353;kin crede, mentre My&#353;kin non desidera affatto distruggere i nihilisti; solo renderli tolleranti e perspicaci. Chiede di ascoltare e essere ascoltato.</p><p>Ma i nihilisti affrontano la controversia come conflitto sanguinario, in cui chi vince sopravvive e chi perde muore. Sopravvalutano la propria forza (oggi li chiameremmo &#8220;logocentrici&#8221;); e un&#8217;inesperta, presuntuosa insolenza toglie loro avvertimento e memoria. Negano che tra avversari possa esservi rispetto; e che al centro di tutto possa regnare il mistero. Ricordano taluni degli antichi sofisti portati in scena nei dialoghi platonici: questa segreta continuit&#224; tra la filosofia greca e il grande romanzo russo dell&#8217;Ottocento, mediata dalla tradizione esicastica slavo-bizantina, &#232; uno dei motivi di maggiore fascino, per me, di autori appunto come Dostoevskij.</p><p>La parola, nei nihilisti, non &#232; altro che violenza; e il discorso un modo dell&#8217;assassinio. I rapporti tra cerchie e generazioni finiscono per andare distrutti, e cos&#236; pure il vincolo di lealt&#224; e fiducia che solo pu&#242; reggere una societ&#224; al suo interno. Tale vincolo, chiarisce Dostoevskij, non &#232; altro che l&#8217;agape cristiana: in sua assenza nessuna legge &#232; efficace.</p><p>Una terza riflessione, nel saggio, ruota attorno alla <em>Montagna incantata</em> di Thomas Mann, agli innumerevoli dialoghi e conversazioni che attraversano il testo. Anche nella <em>Montagna incantata</em> troviamo personaggi che ricorrono alla parola per trarne violenza, dottrinari che pretendono di infliggere il loro credo a tutto il mondo. Eppure solo lo splendore animale, qui interpretato da un&#8217;aquila reale che improvvisamente si libra in volo sulle vette, desta un&#8217;ammirazione inoppugnabile e immediata, appare cio&#232; immediatamente persuasiva: non certo la volont&#224; di avere ragione di personaggi come Naphta e Settembrini. E Claudia Chauchat, la Diotima di Mann, sceglie di legarsi all&#8217;anziano Mynheer Peeperkorn, i cui &#8220;discorsi&#8221; si smarriscono in qualcosa che va al di l&#224; della conoscenza, non certo ai due polemici rivali n&#233; a Hans Castorp, protagonista del romanzo. Il fallimento della parola, suggerisce Mann, introduce all&#8217;esperienza del nucleo pi&#249; profondo della nostra umanit&#224;.</p><p>La &#8220;delicatezza&#8221;, appunto: quell&#8217;<em>esprit de finesse</em> con cui cogliamo talvolta nessi troppo sottili e diramati per poter essere districati senza strappo; o addirittura l&#8217;essere stesso, che non <em>&#232;</em> linguaggio, in quanto si offre a noi, come senso o origine del senso, solo a condizione di un&#8217;estrema cautela e cura e precisione di linguaggio.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png" width="830" height="914" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oRPm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb126808c-d15d-4a02-9fe3-9ce831259fb2_830x914.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Grazie per aver letto <em>The Bibliophile</em>, la sezione del blog dedicata a anteprime, reprints e <em>rariora</em>. Iscriviti per ricevere i prossimi articoli e supportare il mio lavoro.</p><p>Sei gi&#224; iscritto? Considera allora la possibilit&#224; di fare upgrade per avere un&#8217;esperienza pi&#249; completa del blog.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Fai upgrade&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe"><span>Fai upgrade</span></a></p><p>Per regalare il blog invece clicca <a href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?gift=true&amp;utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email">qui</a>!</p><p>Se desideri condividere questo contenuto, clicca il pulsante qui sotto.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/per-uneuropa-post-liberale-manifesto?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODY5OTY5NzgsImlhdCI6MTc3MDY0NjI0OSwiZXhwIjoxNzczMjM4MjQ5LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.elvq36oh-_QBk37VBS0PKWrmYPBfrza2QDnu5Q3weTQ&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Condividi&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/per-uneuropa-post-liberale-manifesto?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODY5OTY5NzgsImlhdCI6MTc3MDY0NjI0OSwiZXhwIjoxNzczMjM4MjQ5LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.elvq36oh-_QBk37VBS0PKWrmYPBfrza2QDnu5Q3weTQ"><span>Condividi</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><strong>&#127468;&#127463; The Fragile Word: A Brief Synopsis of On Delicacy</strong></p><p>This coming Saturday, March 28th, tomorrow, I will be at <a href="https://testo.pittimmagine.com/it/events-calendar?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=23530045584&amp;gbraid=0AAAABCzt1EYmZh4NMzmAj_OpPqyvaTPwp&amp;gclid=CjwKCAiA2PrMBhA4EiwAwpHyC-p6CUicNRkHn_V7kTVIgm4xN7QV_h5-P3ypIUpAdLeD6eUKpz-c_BoCfQgQAvD_BwE">Testo</a> Florence for a symposium honoring <strong>Eugenio Borgna</strong>, the eminent psychiatrist and essayist who passed away in December 2024. Three of Borgna&#8217;s essays are currently making their debut in English, including <em>Wounded Nostalgia</em> (<a href="https://www.peterlang.com/document/1470280">Peter Lang</a>), for which I had the honor of writing the introduction.</p><p>In 2021, Borgna wrote the preface to my own essay, <em>Sulla delicatezza</em> (On Delicacy), published by Il Mulino (<a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-184558676">here</a>). Our perspectives were distinct but resonant: mine was the more <strong>metaphysical</strong> approach, treating &#8220;delicacy&#8221; as a predicate of Being&#8212;a linguistic and philosophical condition; Borgna&#8217;s was more visceral, rooted in <strong>human suffering</strong>, where &#8220;delicacy&#8221; defined the fragile bond between doctor and patient&#8212;a relationship always on the verge of collapse.</p><p>As my own work intersects with Borgna&#8217;s once more through Wounded Nostalgia, I offer this brief synopsis of On Delicacy, both as a tribute to the man and to the unexpected gift of his mentorship.</p><p><strong>A Manifesto for Non-Violent Communication</strong></p><p>The essay&#8217;s subtitle frames it as a manifesto, beginning with Socrates and his sharp distinction between <strong>philosophical inquiry</strong>, <strong>political rhetoric</strong>, and <strong>satire</strong>.</p><p>For the ancient philosopher, the language of truth has nothing in common with the politician&#8217;s stump speech or the comedian&#8217;s mockery. Both the politician and the comic seek consensus; neither cares particularly for the truth. The philosopher, however, knows that language is not a mere tool. Distortion and lies eventually possess the speaker who thinks he can wield them at will. His caution in choosing words isn&#8217;t a matter of fussy intellectualism or moralizing; it springs from a deep-seated dread of the <strong>obscure foundation</strong> upon which our words&#8212;and our very lives&#8212;rest. Only &#8220;true&#8221; speech heals, keeping the mind in the balance required for wisdom. Yet, such speech remains perpetually vulnerable to the polis, which instinctively rejects what is &#8220;true&#8221; in favor of what is convenient.</p><p><strong>The Dostoevskian Asymmetry</strong></p><p><strong>Dostoevsky</strong> is the essay&#8217;s central figure, particularly for how The Idiot stages the metaphysical clash between <strong>Prince Myshkin and the nihilists</strong>. It is a competition defined by asymmetry: the nihilists are hell-bent on destroying everything Myshkin believes in, while Myshkin has no desire to destroy them. He only wants them to be perceptive, to be tolerant. He asks simply to listen and to be heard.</p><p>But the nihilists treat every controversy as a blood sport&#8212;a conflict where the winner survives and the loser perishes. They suffer from an overestimation of their own power (what we might call &#8220;logocentrism&#8221; today); their arrogant, raw insolence blinds them to both warning and memory. They deny that respect can exist between enemies, or that <strong>mystery</strong> might reign at the heart of all things. In this sense, they resemble the Sophists of the Platonic dialogues. This hidden thread connecting Greek philosophy to the 19th-century Russian novel&#8212;woven through the <strong>Hesychastic tradition</strong> of the East&#8212;remains, for me, one of Dostoevsky&#8217;s most haunting qualities.</p><p>For the nihilist, the word is merely a weapon; discourse is a form of assassination. In their wake, the bonds between generations and the very social fabric of trust&#8212;the <strong>Christian </strong>agape&#8212;disintegrate. Without that bond, Dostoevsky reminds us, no law can hold.</p><p><strong>The Splendor of Failure in Thomas Mann</strong></p><p>Finally, the essay turns to Thomas Mann&#8217;s The Magic Mountain and its endless, revolving door of conversation. Here, too, we find characters who use language as a cudgel&#8212;doctrinaires like Naphta and Settembrini who want to bludgeon the world with their creeds.</p><p>And yet, it is a moment of &#8220;animal splendor&#8221;&#8212;a golden eagle suddenly taking flight over the peaks&#8212;that commands immediate, undeniable admiration. It is more persuasive than any polemic. Even Clavdia Chauchat, Mann&#8217;s &#8220;Diotima,&#8221; chooses the elderly Mynheer Peeperkorn, whose speech often drifts off into a realm beyond knowledge, over her more articulate rivals. Mann suggests that it is precisely in the <strong>failure of the word</strong> that we encounter the deepest core of our humanity.</p><p>This is &#8220;delicacy&#8221;: that esprit de finesse with which we occasionally grasp connections too fine to be untangled without breaking. It is the encounter with Being itself&#8212;which is not language&#8212;as it offers itself to us as a sense of origin, provided we approach it with extreme caution, care, and a relentless precision of speech.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg" width="1057" height="1500" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fS6_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9dba99aa-2a22-48d8-8b72-d3f049247201_1057x1500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div 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Peter Burke ne scrive nel saggio "Testimoni oculari": qui un mio commento]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/immagini-e-storia</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/immagini-e-storia</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 17 Jan 2026 13:30:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SruP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd12603f-05c5-4b19-8b61-d8bf12626c94_1236x1946.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Per chi conosca i saggi su Luigi xiv, sul Rinascimento italiano o la storia culturale, <em>Testimoni oculari</em> di <strong>Peter Burke</strong> (i ed. 2002; Carocci, Roma 2024), dedicato al ruolo che le immagini possono avere come documenti nella ricostruzione di epoche e contesti, costituir&#224; inevitabilmente una delusione. Non perch&#233; manchino pagine brillanti o la consueta abilit&#224; di passare in rassegna vaste bibliografie. Ma perch&#233; le ambizioni di libro sembrano diminuire via via che ci si avvicina al termine. Gli storici possono usare le immagini come documenti, al pari di testi, codici, cultura materiale etc.? </p><p>Questa la domanda da cui si parte, per rispondere subito, e con grande convinzione, in modo affermativo. <strong>Burckhardt, Warburg, Panofsky, Huizinga</strong>: sin qui tutto bene. Poi per&#242;, quando ci si avvicina a gran passi al presente, l&#8217;esposizione si fa digressiva e minuta, subentra la necessit&#224;, che subito risulta artificiosa, di ordinare in via evolutiva e lineare le mille diverse prospettive che si ha oggi in merito, si perdono di vista insieme o sottoinsieme cruciali - gli storici che restano marxisti, ad esempio, e, in rapporto alle immagini, mantengono punti di vista funzionalisti: questa sembra un&#8217;assunzione ben pi&#249; rilevante di altre, che pure si considerano, e senza dubbio, quando passiamo a delineare &#8220;famiglie&#8221; o raggruppamenti di storici accomunati da impostazioni di metodo, stabilisce prossimit&#224; e distanze attraverso le generazioni, negando rilevanza al pi&#249; pedissequo criterio della cronologia, adottato da Burke -.</p><p>Nella seconda sezione del volume l&#8217;indagine circa i modi attraverso cui le immagini possono valere come documenti sfuma in un catalogo, di rilevanza assai minore, di immagini che illustrano episodi della storia, civili, politici e militari; e dei loro autori. Con questo il tema centrale, di una <em>agency</em> storica propria delle immagini, se e come, retrocede sullo sfondo: e la ricerca si specializza (e si autolimita) inaspettatamente in senso ottocentista.</p><p>Scepsi dopo scepsi, Burke riduce la propria ambizione. Non che tutto ci&#242; sia ingiustificato: &#232; opportuno, persino ovvio, segnalare agli storici politici o militari o sociali che le immagini non sono mai trasparenti, che rispondono a codici e convenzioni, che dialogano solo in parte con il proprio tempo storico, perch&#233; un dialogo (a tratti anche pi&#249; profondo) le impegna con la propria tradizione, il museo, i Maestri, le convenzioni appunto del genere cui appartengono, etc. Ma perch&#233;, allora, se si diffida (e sono d&#8217;accordo che si diffidi) di affermazioni generali, e si stabilisce che la storicit&#224; di un&#8217;immagine dipinta e scolpita &#232; solo &#171;ipotetica&#187; o eventuale, e pu&#242; essere valutata solo attraverso <em>case studies</em>, e accertamenti singoli, e ricostruzioni meticolose della catena di mediazioni sociali e culturali (di &#171;filtri&#187;, come preferisce dire Burke) e non senza una minuta attenzione a biografie artistiche, tradizioni e contesti prossimi e meno prossimi (committenti, ubicazioni, aspettative, ricezione), perch&#233; allora non si dedica sin da subito al saggio non a un&#8217;impalpabile &#8220;storia&#8221; della disciplina &#8220;storia culturale&#8221;, ma a profili individuali di storici provvisti, a differenza di altri, di quell&#8217;<em><strong>esprit de finesse</strong></em> che Burke (io con lui) ritiene particolarmente apprezzabile in tema di immagini e loro interpretazione? Burke pecca qui di una qualche pedanteria storicistica, per cos&#236; dire alla Gombrich: per cui non si discute l&#8217;apriori della serie storica n&#233; il postulato della continuit&#224; di questa stessa serie, che rimane tacito.</p><p>La tesi conclusiva &#232; semplice: torniamo a Panofsky, o meglio, a una versione riveduta e corretta dell&#8217;iconografia e iconologia di Panofsky (la differenza tra le due si smarrisce qui gradualmente, senza che vi sia, da parte di Burke, un chiaro riconoscimento delle differenze pur grandi o grandissime che passano tra il Panofsky &#8220;tedesco&#8221; e il Panofsky di Princeton); ampliata in senso sociale (ma che vi sia un nesso tra immagini e storia sociale rimane da verificare di volta in volta); integrata di una storia della ricezione che accoglie il suggerimento di <strong>Baxandall</strong>, quello cio&#232; di fare della storia dell&#8217;arte &#8220;una storia dell&#8217;occhio&#8221;.</p><p>Rilevo una fallacia, a proposito dell&#8217;enfasi conferita da Burke alla storia della ricezione. Si d&#224; ricezione e ricezione: non si pu&#242; semplicemente assumere che la ricezione del pubblico sia omogenea alla ricezione degli artisti lungo la catena delle generazioni. Burke non tiene alcun di questo tratto per cos&#236; dire iniziatico della trasmissione e ricezione interna, da artista a artista; o pi&#249; semplicemente tecnico. Una simile circostanza aggiunge complessit&#224;: perch&#233; esistono pi&#249; ricezioni e Burke non considera l&#8217;eventualit&#224; di una storia della ricezione (che chiamo) &#8220;interna&#8221;. Non c&#8217;&#232; dubbio che una simile storia &#232; &#8220;storia sociale&#8221;, nel senso circoscritto di Baxandall e <strong>del tutto estraneo al determinismo economicista</strong>; modellata da tradizioni di &#8220;bottega&#8221;, cognizioni tecniche e insiderismi di vario genere. E&#8217; anche rilevante da punti di vista storico-sociali e storico-politici <em>tout court</em>? Il numero di artisti, in un dato momento storico e in un unico contesto omofono, non &#232; cos&#236; elevato da autorizzare proiezioni valide per l&#8217;intera societ&#224;. Cosa ben diversa, verosimilmente, &#232; una storia sociale dell&#8217;agricoltura, della ristorazione o delle gilde. Ma proprio qui, entro una storia della ricezione &#8220;interna&#8221;, le immagini muovono fascinosamente tra registri consci e inconsci; &#8220;evolvono&#8221;, nello sguardo dell&#8217;osservatore, ben oltre il piano illustrativo, operando spostamento, condensazione, sincretismi e &#8220;creolizzazioni&#8221;; svolgono una agency storica. E&#8217; qui, nello sguardo di un erede, che le <em>Pathosformeln</em> di cui parla Warburg si attivano o riattivano, e determinate immagini-Madre istituiscono canone e tradizione.</p><p>Che fare di tutto ci&#242;? Mi riprometto di scriverne qui in una prossima occasione.</p><p></p><p><em>per approfondimenti sul &#8220;primo&#8221; e &#8220;secondo&#8221; Panofsky e sull&#8217;iconologia, su Gombrich e Baxandall:</em></p><p>Michele Dantini, <em>Arte e sfera pubblica</em>, Donzelli, Roma 2016</p><div><hr></div><p>Grazie per avere letto <em>The Bibliophile</em>, la sezione del blog dedicata a segnalazioni librarie, rariora, inediti e reprints per abbonati. Iscriviti qui per ricevere i prossimi articoli e supportare il mio lavoro.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Iscriviti ora&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Iscriviti ora</span></a></p><p>Oppure regala il blog cliccando <a href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/subscribe?gift=true&amp;utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email">qui</a>!</p><p>Se desideri condividere questo contenuto, clicca il pulsante qui sotto.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/antiamericanismo-antiamericanismi?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODQzNjA4MzYsImlhdCI6MTc2ODU1NTExNCwiZXhwIjoxNzcxMTQ3MTE0LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.ypmkJD42Ts40jnfNwbgRMUzuu-igXYrqNRbadGNP8sk&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Condividi&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/antiamericanismo-antiamericanismi?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjo3NjQ3NzU4LCJwb3N0X2lkIjoxODQzNjA4MzYsImlhdCI6MTc2ODU1NTExNCwiZXhwIjoxNzcxMTQ3MTE0LCJpc3MiOiJwdWItNDAyNzkzIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.ypmkJD42Ts40jnfNwbgRMUzuu-igXYrqNRbadGNP8sk"><span>Condividi</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Apple sci-fi ]]></title><description><![CDATA[Il branding della Mela si &#232; costruito attorno a "costanti narrative" tratte dalla storia del cinema e della letteratura sci-fi. Sequenze memorabili hanno nutrito la leggenda: scopri qui come]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/marketing-apple-una-storia-culturale</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/marketing-apple-una-storia-culturale</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 30 Dec 2025 06:25:15 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 1272w, 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data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:562,&quot;width&quot;:1282,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1107261,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://micheledantini.substack.com/i/182902461?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SwdD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7bce95d-9c20-4979-8c80-6b2882c8372f_1282x562.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>A parlare di tecnologia sono per lo pi&#249; tecnici, informatici, programmatori, softwaristi: anche oggi, o soprattutto oggi, che ci interroghiamo sulla AI e le sue conseguenze cognitive, economiche e sociali. Mi sembra invece opportuno presentare, quando possibile, <strong>punti di vista &#8220;umanistici&#8221;</strong>, auspicabilmente non ingenui. Perch&#233; ciascun discorso, anche que&#8230;</p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Le forme del divino/2]]></title><description><![CDATA[L&#8217;astro di Pavel Florenskij irradia a distanza di decenni dalla morte, tra i pi&#249; integri e certi del Novecento: qui ne ricordo l'attivit&#224; prendendo spunto da un breve testo "cosmologico"]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/le-forme-del-divino2</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/le-forme-del-divino2</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 16 Dec 2025 09:06:39 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Hwq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0487d27-9485-4845-b5d2-8e4c3689aede_2030x1322.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>L&#8217;astro di Pavel Florenskij irradia a distanza di decenni dalla morte, tra i pi&#249; integri e certi del Novecento. La sua fucilazione in una tetra foresta sub-artica nei dintorni di San Pietroburgo, 8 dicembre 1937, a opera di un anonimo ufficiale della polizia segreta, verosimilmente alcolizzato e drogato, sta, da sola, a bastante esecrazione del bolscevi&#8230;</p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Le forme del divino/1]]></title><description><![CDATA[Le Edizioni Il Mulino seleziona il mio saggio tra le strenne natalizie. Qui una breve sinossi accompagnata da una videoclip]]></description><link>https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/le-forme-del-divino1</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://micheledantini.substack.com/p/le-forme-del-divino1</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[MicheleDantini]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 15 Dec 2025 06:45:19 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Smyg!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5dccdd91-dadd-4b8f-851e-bef607ede0b7_1290x2124.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Le Edizioni<strong> Il Mulino</strong> seleziona il mio saggio tra le strenne natalizie.</p><p>La nomination mi rende felice, prima ancora che come autore, perch&#233; segnala l&#8217;interesse della casa editrice, tra le pi&#249; prestigiose, agli studi su arte e cultura visuale.</p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>